Christian theological controversy
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Christians have had theological disagreements since not long after the time of Jesus. The history of Christianity contains numerous episodes in which people of God came into conflict over proper interpretation of the meaning of scripture. Theological disputes have given rise to many schisms and different Christian denominations, most of which find their genesis within Catholicism.
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[edit] Background
One of the main difficulties is the none of the original documents are known to exist today. This is compounded by the difficulty in finding the meaning of the languages in which the documents currently known to exist. In order to obtain a full understanding of these writings, it is necessary either to learn these initial languages, or rely on their translations. However, translational difficulties occasionally arise, in part due to the non-literal meanings of some words in the original text and the difficulty in transliterating them into a different cultural setting.
Another difficulty is determining the context in which the original words were spoken. The context of a passage of Scripture can be more fully understood by reading through the entire passage or topic. However, it is also important to gain an understanding of the historical context of the time that the passage or book was written. For example, the New Testament authors incorporated references to cultural and religious practices of the era into their writings. These practices in some cases need to be taken into account when making an interpretation because of differences in the modern era.
A number of differences arise over parts of Scripture that use imagery or concepts that are difficult to express in human ways. For example, the Book of Revelation contains a great deal of symbolism and imagery and the varying views of this specific book have led to several major theological disputes. The concept of the Trinity, or Godhead, and that of the deity and humanity of Jesus Christ, are just a few of the important but extremely challenging concepts that have also brought division.
The following sections list some of the areas of theological distinction or difference that have occurred in the history of the Christian church. It will immediately be seen that schisms or minor points of dissent are by no means uncommon.
[edit] Pre-Reformational distinctions
This section lists key areas of distinction or differences that arose in Christian theology of the era. In the early years of the Christian church, these chiefly took the form of small sects or movements; as time went on, key doctrines were established, most of which are still taught in the Anglican Church, Roman Catholic Church (RCC) and the Eastern Orthodox Church (EOC). Most of the RCC and EOC doctrines listed here are considered heretical in Protestant theology. Some Catholic and Orthodox doctrines persist in certain Protestant churches but not in others. Some doctrines initially considered heretical persist in certain Protestant churches but not in others.
- Absolution: sacerdotal remittance of sin. RCC doctrine.
- Antinomianism
- Apostolic Succession: Anglican, EOC and RCC doctrine.
- Adelphotheos: doctrine that called James the Just the brother of God
- Arianism: doctrines regarding Christ's divinity; main ones shared by Jehovah's Witnesses and a few Protestant churches.
- Donatists
- Ebionites
- Gnosticism: Generally rejected the goodness of the physical to emphasize the spiritual, also emphasized "hidden teachings"; some ideas persist in some Protestant churches.
- Icon veneration: Important RCC and EOC doctrine affirming the Incarnation.
- Indulgences: RCC doctrine.
- Judaizers
- Legalism
- Manichaeism
- Marcionism: called the greatest heresy ever
- Monarchianism: doctrines regarding Christ's divinity.
- Monasticism: RCC and EOC Holy Orders ascetical practice.
- Monophysitism: doctrines regarding Christ's divinity. Subject of Council of chalcedon(451).
- Montanism: fostered Nicolationism and doctrine that no salvation was found outside the Church institution. Great emphasis on end-times prophecy and miracles comparable to some Pentecostal churches today.
- Nazarenes
- Nicolationism (priestly supremacy): early Episcopalian doctrine.
- Nontrinitarianism
- Novatianism
- Papal Primacy: Belief that the Pope is the successor of St. Peter and therefore head of Christianity. Unique to RCC.
- Pelagianism: denial of original sin and helplessness of sinner to save himself, affirmation of free will.
- Purgatory: Belief in a "holding place" after death where souls are purified before entering heaven. Important in RCC, but mostly rejected by the Reformation. The EOC also rejects the doctrine of Purgatory.
- Quartodecimanism: Easter controversy
- Sabbath
- Sabellianism: doctrines regarding the Trinity, also known as "modalism"; shared by many Protestant churches.
- Sacerdotalism: priesthood as intermediary and sacred office. Key RCC and EOC doctrine.
- Sacramentalism: rituals/works as means of grace essential or helpful to salvation. Key doctrine in RCC, EOC, and many Protestant denominations.
- Sainthood: canonization a key RCC and EOC practice.
- Simonianism: Simon Magus
- Theotokos: Mary the "Mother of God" / perpetually virgin, affirming Christ's full divinity and single personhood. Key RCC and EOC doctrine.
- Traditionalism: tradition of near equal authority to scripture. Key RCC and EOC doctrine.
- Transubstantiation: key RCC doctrine.
[edit] Post-Reformation distinctions
Since the Reformation emphasized the rights of Christians to expound their own views of theology, most theological distinctions have occurred between the various Protestant denominations. Some elaboration of RCC doctrines however have been promulgated since that time. The differences between many of the denominations are relatively minor and have helped ecumenical efforts in recent times.
- Adventism: typified by the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Some beliefs considered heretical in mainstream Protestantism and by RCC and EOC churches.
- Agnosticism: existence of God is unknown.
- Anabaptism: early reformationalists, denied humanity of Christ and infant baptism.
- Anglican doctrine: reformation theology from Britain and Ireland that retains episcopal polity but endorses some elements of Calvinism.
- Anglo-Catholicism: reactionary high church theology of Anglicanism.
- Arminianism: reaction to Calvinism. Key doctrine of Anglican and Methodist churches, adopted by some Baptists and Congregationalists.
- Assumption of Mary: RCC doctrine.
- Believer's Baptism: doctrine of only immersional baptism of believing adults. John Bunyan the most famous adherent.
- Brethrenism: Anabaptist-Pietist. Open and Exclusive streams.
- Calvinism: early reformationalist doctrine.
- Charismatism: charismatic move in traditional Protestant and RCC churches, often associated with glossolalia.
- Christian polygamy: major non-denominational theological controversy. Exponents believe that enforced monogamy is an extra-biblical construct of the Roman Catholic Church.
- Christian vegetarianism: major non-denominational theological controversy. Some exponents believe that Jesus Christ and his disciples practiced or encouraged vegetarianism. See, for example, American author and activist Keith Akers.
- Congregationalism: form of governance used in Congregationalist, Baptist and Pentecostal churches in which each congregation is self-governing and independent of all others.
- Conservative Christianity Holds the Bible to be authoritative and sees the Bible as historical unless obviously not (poetry, etc.).
- Counter-Reformation: RCC response to Reformationalism.
- Creation Spirituality: Panentheist theology. Heretical to most Protestants, RCC and EOC.
- Deism: replaces faith with reason, believes God does not intervene in earthly affairs. Also Enlightenment, Encyclopaedism, Rationalism
- Ecumenism: move to reunite churches, esp. Protestant / RCC. Denounced as heretical by Protestants critical of the Papacy and by some Orthodox.
- Evangelicalism: conservative Protestant theology. Some churches have evangelical and liberal streams.
- Immaculate Conception: RCC doctrine rejected by EOC and Protestants.
- Latitudinarianism: broad church theology of Anglicanism.
- Liberalism: Belief in interpreting the Bible to allow for the maximum amount of individual freedom.
- Low church: puritanical / Evangelical theology of Anglicanism.
- Methodism: form of governance and doctrine used in Methodist Church.
- Modernism: Belief that truth changes so doctrine must change in light of new information or trends.
- Mormonism: LDS church. Consider the Book of Mormon and others to be additional divine scriptures; rejects the doctrine of the Trinity and many other differences.
- Neo-Calvinism: reaction to liberalism. Says Christ is the primary revelation of God, and that the Bible is a divinely inspired testament to that revelation, rather than the revelation itself. It is also known as Neo-Orthodoxy.
- New Thought: Movement based on Nineteenth century New England belief in positive thinking. Several denominations arose from it including Unity Church, Religious Science and the more divergent Christian Science.
- Nonconformism: advocacy of religious liberty. Includes Quakers, Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists and Salvationists.
- Nontrinitarianism: Rejection of the doctrine of Trinity.
- Papal Infallibility: Important RCC doctrine rejected by EOC (see Great Schism) and Protestants.
- Pentecostalism: doctrine that charismatic gifts have been restored to the church.
- Pietism: A stream of Lutheranism placing renewed emphasis on the Bible and a universal priesthood.
- Presbyterianism: form of governance used in Presbyterian and Reformed churches.
- Puritanism: Movement to cleanse Episcopalianism of any "ritualistic" aspects.
- Restoration Movement: 19th century attempt to return to a New Testament model of the church
- Restorationism: includes the Millerites-Seventh-day Adventists and Latter Day Saints.
- Salvationism: Salvation Army. It is an offshoot of the Methodist Church
- Tractarianism: Oxford Movement. It led to Anglo-Catholicism.
- Ultramontanism: A French RCC reaction to church-state separation.
- Unitarianism: Rejects Trinity and divinity of Christ.
- Universalism: In various forms, the belief that all people will receive salvation.
- Wesleyanism: A stream of Methodism. The title was reintroduced by a schism in the New Zealand church.
[edit] Present-day distinctions
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Please see the discussion on the talk page. |
Most present day controversy revolves around the Pentecostal/Charismatic movements, largely a product of the 20th century. Conservative Evangelical/Reformed theology typically teaches that the charismata, or "sign gifts" of the Holy Spirit, were only given to the early church, and died out permanently after that. These views are in opposition to many Pentecostal denominations and churches that are a growing feature of modern Christianity, as well as to charismatic movements in mainline Protestant denominations and the Roman Catholic Church. Roman Catholic and Orthodox theology generally denies that the "sign gifts" died out permanently, and many stories of the saints and others include various miraculous signs.
Other key areas of difficulty focus around:
- The ordination or place of women in ministry.
- Eschatology and the book of Revelation (Preterism, Historicism, Futurism, Idealism).
- Worship styles and especially the modern style of lyrics.
- Parachurch organisations.
- Sexual morality, especially sexual orientation and, increasingly, polygamy. (Some, like Senator Rick Santorum, argue that legalizing gay marriage also encourages polygamy.)
Discernmentalists typically focus on perceived heresies in Pentecostalism, Charismatism and Ecumenism, among others. They defend their actions by citing Scriptural injunctions regarding the testing of scripture and cautioning against false teachers. Some Pentecostal/charismatic theologians claim that their interpretations of certain passages have been divinely inspired, a claim other Discernmentalists reject. Many outside the movement regard Discernmentalists as judgemental legalists who have absented themselves from teaching the grace that is a key Christian doctrine.
Discernmentalists should not be confused with anti-cult ministries, which work primarily in alerting Christians to the alleged dangers posed by churches that they consider to be cults.
Some areas attacked by discernmentalists include:
- Mel Gibson's The Passion of the Christ film. Over 13,000 words of rebuttal on one website, on account of Gibson's Catholicism and other Catholic involvement in production.
- Widely regarded parachurch organisations such as "Promise Keepers", "Alpha", "Focus on the Family", Christian Vegetarian Association, etc.
- The Toronto blessing and similar "hyper-charismatic" movements.
- Many streams of Pentecostal thought.
- Denunciation of many noted Christians based on supercritical evaluation of their activities, including those long dead. In addition, reliance upon sole sources of information does not meet normal standards of historical research. Without having in some way been able to record every single thought, act or word of every noted Christian it is impossible to know whether they should be condemned for something they may have later turned away from.
Most discernment ministry organisations are small but have achieved greater influence through the Internet. In summary, the purveyors of these ministries seem to proclaim themselves as ultimate authorities on all of the subjects which they publish an opinion on.
