Muhammad bin Qasim

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Imád-uddín Muhammad bin Qasim bin Ukail Sakifi
695 - 715
Place of birth	Sod, Bilad al-Sham (Levant)
Allegiance	Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef, Governor to the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I
Rank	Amir
Battles/wars	Muhammad bin Qasim is famous for his conquest of Sind for the Umayyads.

Muhammad bin Qasim Al-Thaqafi (Arabic: محمد بن قاسم) (c. 695–715) was a Syrian Arab general who conquered the Sindh and Punjab regions along the Indus river (now a part of Pakistan). The conquest of Sindh and Punjab began the Islamic era in South Asia.

Contents 1 Life and Career 2 Campaign as recounted in the Chach-Nama 3 Military Strategy 4 Reasons for Success 5 Death 6 Administration by Qasim 6.1 Law enforcement and conquest 6.2 Taxation 6.3 Incorporation of ruling elite into administration 6.4 Religion 7 Controversy 8 Legacy 9 See also 10 Footnotes 11 References

[edit] Life and Career

Muhammad bin Qasim was born around 695. His father died when he was young, leaving Qasim's mother in charge of his education. Umayyad governor Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef was one of Qasim's close relatives, and was instrumental in teaching Qasim about warfare and governing. Qasim is known for his expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate to the east by adding Sindh and parts of Punjab. The primary source of his historiography comes from the Chach Nama.

Under Hajjaj's patronage, Qasim was made governor of Persia, where he succeeded in putting down a rebellion. At the age of seventeen, he was sent by Caliph Al-Walid I to lead an army towards India into what is today the Sindh and Punjab area of Pakistan. According to the Chach Nama, the expedition against Raja Dahir was in response to a raid by pirates off the coast of Debal, who captured a ship holding gifts to the caliph from the King of Serendib and female pilgrims.^[1] This casus belli provided the rising power of the Umayyad Caliphate with a chance to gain a foothold in the Makran, Balochistan and Sindh regions. Through conquest, it meant to protect its maritime interests, cut off fleeing rebel chieftans and prevent Sindh from supporting non-Muslim Persians in various battles such as Nahawand, Salasal and Qādisiyyah. The primary reason for the Umayyad interest in the region is however viewed as the operation of the Mids who preyed upon Arab shipping from the mouth of the Tigris river to Sri Lankan coast in their bawarij from Kutch, Debal and Kathiawar.^[2]

[edit] Campaign as recounted in the Chach-Nama

Qasim's expedition was the second, the first had failed due to stiffer than anticipated opposition as well as heat, exhaustion and scurvy.

Qasim was successful, rapidly taking all of Sindh and moving into southern Punjab up to Multan with a regiment of 6,000 Syrian soldiers.

Hajjaj had put more care and planning into this campaign than the first campaign under Badil bin Tuhfa. Qasim was supported by Abdulla bin Nahban. In 711, Qasim first established his base at the Ummayyad controlled Arman Belah (Lasbela) in Makran and from there proceeded to assault Debal. Following the orders of Al-Hajjaj, he exacted a bloody retribution on Debal while freeing the kidnapped pilgrams as well as prisoners from the earlier failed campaign. From Debal he then moved on to Nerun to resupply.^[3] Here, Nerun's Buddhist governor had acknowledged his city as a tributary of the Caliphate after the first campaign and opened the gates to their forces. From there, Qasim's armies then moved to capture Siwistan (Sehwan) and joined into an alliance with various tribal chiefs and secured the surrounding regions. With his new allies, he captured the fort at Sisam and secured the remaining regions to the west of the Mehran (Indus River). At this point, the soldiers of the Qasim expedition had to resort to using soaked cotton with vinegar to suck on as a prophylaxis against scurvy and send for new horses, due to losses by disease and the campaign.

Dahir attempted to prevent Qasim from crossing the Indus river by moving his forces to its eastern banks. However, Qasim successfully completed the crossing and defeated an attempt to repel him by Jaisiah, the son of Dahir, around the vicinity of Jitor. He then advanced onward to Raor (Nawabshah) in 712, where Dahir was defeated and died in battle.

Qasim's forces then marched upon Raor and took it, where it is noted in the Chach Nama that Dahir's wife Bai and some others committed Jauhar. He then made his way toward Brahmanabad where Jaisiah had invested himself and was gathering troops. Enroute he took the forts at Bahror, which he besieged for two months, and Dahlelah, where he captured Jaisiah's wazir who then defected to Qasim. When Qasim arrived at Brahmanabad, Jaisiah who had based himself there moved out and Qasim besieged the city for six months. The town was taken when a faction came over to Qasim and opened the gates. Here a report tells of the capture of another of Dahir's wives, Ladi, whom Qasim later married, and of the two daughters of Dahir from a third wife, who were sent on to the Khalifa as war booty. At Brahmanabad Qasim began to orgranize the administration of the lands before marching onward to the capital Alor (Aror), while consolidating his hold on the region and accepting pledges of allegiance, without encountering any significant resistance enroute. Aror was governed by one of Dahir's sons who fled to join his brothers and the city surrendered without much fighting. From here Qasim advanced northward to Multan and after crossing the Beas River began to encounter resistance once again from the local rulers at the forts of Golkondah, Sikkah and finally Multan. Jaisiah after attempting to raise support in Rajasthan fled to exile in Kashmir.

Qasim was preparing to march upon Kanauj when he received a summons from the Khalifa, thereby ending his campaign.

[edit] Military Strategy

Qasim responded positively to those who surrendered and incorporated into his administration whomsoever accepted his authority.^[4] He was even berated by Hajjaj for being too lenient and therefore risked being considered by all as weak. ^[5]

Still, he made an example of those forces who opposed him such as executing the soldiers who did not surrender at Debal, Bahror and Brahmanabad and pardoning those at Aror, Sehwan and Brahmanabad.^[6]

After each major phase of his conquest, Qasim stopped to establish law and order in the newly-conquered territory by showing religious tolerance and incorporating the ruling class into his administration.^[7]

The Chachnama records the following as strategy advised by Hajjaj to Qasim:^[8]

Give them large rewards and presents. Do not disappoint those who want estates and lands, but comply with their requests. Encourage them by giving them written promises of protection and safety. You must know that there are four ways of acquir­ing a kingdom—1stly, courtesy, conciliation, gentleness, and alliances; 2ndly, expenditure of money, and generous gifts; 3rdly, adoption of the most reasonable and expedient measures at the time of disagreement or opposi­tion; and 4thly, the use of overawing force, power, strength and majesty in checking and expelling the enemy.

and ^[9]

When you have conquered the country and strengthened the forts, endeavour to console the subjects and to soothe the residents, so that the agricultural classes and artisans and merchants may, if God so wills, become comfortable and happy, and the country may become fertile and populous.

[edit] Reasons for Success

He succeeded partly because Dahir was an unpopular Hindu king that ruled over a Buddhist majority.^[10] The forces of Muhammad bin Qasim defeated Raja Dahir in alliance with the lower caste Jats and other Buddhist governors. His campaign's success is ascribed to the support of Buddhists and the lower caste Jats, Meds and Bhutto tribes.^[11] Chach of Alor and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the Rai Dynasty),^[10] and rebels formed the infantry to his primarily cavalry force that first arrived at Arman Belah. His army at Multan was reported in the Tarikh Masumi at 50,000, of which only 6,000 came with Qasim.

Along with this were:

1. Superior Military equipment (siege engines^[12] and the Mongol bow)^[10]
2. Troop discipline and leadership ^[10]
3. The concept of jihad as morale booster ^[10]
4. A large Buddhist population unhappy with their Hindu rulers ^[10]
5. Positive response by Qasim to overtures of surrender and an avoidance of excessive bloodshed and destruction. ^[10]
6. Ready support from the lower castes; the Jats and Meds formed the infantry to the predominantly cavalry army that came with Qasim.^[10]
7. The role played by the belief in prophecy; both of Muslim success, and Dahir's marraige (unconsummated) to his sister which alienated him from others.^[13]

[edit] Death

Qasim had begun preparations for an attack on Rashtrakutas in Rajasthan when Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef died, as did Caliph Al-Walid I. Once Hajjaj, Muhammad Bin Qasim’s father-in-law and a notoriously brutal governor of Iraq, died, the new governor took revenge against all who were close to Hajjaj. There are two accounts of the fate of Qasim, but both agree that he was recalled by the new caliph Suleiman. One account is the one which states that the Khalifa had been tricked by Raja Dahir's daughters into believing that Qasim had violated them before sending them over for the caliph's harem. They did this apparently to avenge their father's death. This report in the Chach Nama states that he died due to suffocation enroute to the Khalifa after he was wrapped in oxen hides and returned to Syria. Another account states that the khalifa was a political enemy of Hajjaj and recalled Qasim, and imprisoned him where Qasim died in jail, at the age of twenty under torture.^[10] Baladhuri's account states that he was recalled and tortured to death because of a femily feud with the new governor.^[14]

A historian Baladhuri records the local sentiments upon Qasim's recall,

“people of Hind wept for Qasim and preserved his likeness at Karaj”.

[edit] Administration by Qasim

Qasim's task was seen as administrator was to set up an administrative structure for a stable Muslim state that incorporated a newly conquered alien land, inhabited by non-muslims^[15] He adopted a concilatory policy and the Hanafi school of religious thought, resulting in the acceptance of Muslim rule by the natives in return for non-interference in their religious practice.^[15]

The “Chach-Nama” notes the following as highlights of Qasim’s rule:

• He permitted all to practice their religion freely.^[10]

...Hajjáj informed Muhammad Kásim that, the subject population were not to be interfered with, in the exercise of their own religion, even if they worshipped stocks and stones.

^[16]

• Hindus were included in the Ahl al Kitab ^[10]
• the status of Dhimmis (protected people) was conferred upon Hindus and Buddhists ^[10]
• Property destroyed during hostilities was compensated for.^{[17](dubious; discuss)}
• As a sign of respect to his Hindu populace an edict was issued banning cow slaughter in Sindh and Multan.^{[17](dubious; discuss)}

[edit] Law enforcement and conquest

Capture of towns was also usually accomplished by means of a treaty with a party from among his "enemy", who were then extended special privileges and material rewards.^[7] There were two types of such treaties, "Sulh" or "ahd-e-wasiq (capitulation)" and "aman (surrender/ peace)".^[7] Upon the capture of towns and fortresses, Qasim performed executions as part of his military strategy, but they were limited to the "ahl-i-harb (fighting men)" - whose surviving dependents were also enslaved.^[7] Pardon or aman was granted to the common folk, who were encouraged to coutinue working, while the Brahmins and Shramana's continued to be employed as administrators.^[7] He established Islamic Sharia law over the people of the region, however Hindu's were allowed to rule their villages and settle their disputes according to their own laws^[10] and traditional hierarchical structures such as those of Village Headmen (Rais), Chieftains (dihqans) were maintained^[15]. A muslim officer called an amil was stationed with a troop of cavalry to manage each town; on a heridatary basis ^[15]

[edit] Taxation

Everywhere taxes (mal) and tribute (kharaj) were settled and hostages taken - occasionally this also meant the custodians of temples.^[7] One-fifth of the slaves and booty taken were sent on to Hajjaj^[7] as both treasure and to repay the Caliph for his outlay in outfitting the campaign. As a whole, the non-muslim populations of conquered territories were treated as People of the Book and granted Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religions the freedom to practice their faith in return for payment of the poll tax (jizya). ^[10][18] They were then excused from military service or payment of the tax paid by muslim subjects - Zakat.^[15] The jizya enforced was a graded tax, being heaviest on the elite and lightest on the poor.^[15]

[edit] Incorporation of ruling elite into administration

During his administration Hindus and Buddhists were inducted into the administration as trusted advisors and governors.^[19][10] A Hindu, Kaksa, was the second most important person in his administration.^[20] Dahir's prime minister and various chieftains were also incorporated into the administration.^[21]

[edit] Religion

No mass conversions were attempted.^[22] The destruction of temples such as the Sun Temple at Multan^[22] was forbidden under the adopted Hanafi school of thought and 3% of the government revenue was allocated to the Brahmins.^[10]

A small minority who converted to Islam and were granted exemption from slavery and the jizya.^[15] Mosques were built, prayers held and coins struck in the name of the Caliph. The people of Sindh were allowed to repair damaged temples and construct new ones.^[15]

An eccelastical office "sadru-I-Islam al affal" was created to oversee the secular governors.^[15] While proslytization occurred, the social dynamics of Sind were no different from other Muslim regions such as Egypt, where conversion to Islam was slow and took centuries, and generally came from among the ranks of Buddhists.^[15]

[edit] Controversy

There are two opposing views upon the spread of Islam: whether Islam spread by integration or forceful conversions of native populations. In this context therefore, there is often a difference of opinion in the view of Qasim's conquests.The period of bin-Qasim's rule has been called by U.T. Thakkur as "The darkest period in Sind history", with records of massive forced conversions, temple destruction, slaughers and genocides^[23].The people of Sind, being inherently pacifist at the time,re-adjusted to the conditions of what has been describes as the "barbarian inroad"^[23]. Descriptions entail "frightful outbreaks of religious bigotry in several places and temples were wantonly desecrated" during bin-Qasim's rule, and that Muslim travelers often extorted resources from Hindus by legal mandate^[24]. Other sources also attest to forced conversions imparted on the native Sindhis by bin-Qasim and a systematic depopulation of the region^[25].^{(dubious; discuss)} Some historians strike a middle ground, saying that bin-Qasim was torn between the political expediency of making peace with the Hindus and Buddhists; having to call upon non-muslims to serve under him as part of his mandate to administer newly conquered land; and orthodoxy by refraining from seeking the co-operation of "infidels". It is contended that bin-Qasim may have struck a middle ground, conferring the status of Dhimmi upon the native Sindhis and permitting them to participate in his administration, but treating them as "noncitizens" i.e. in the Khilafat, but not of it.^[15].

[edit] Legacy

• Qasim's presence and rule was very brief. His conquest for the Umayyads brought Sindh into the gambit of the muslim world ^[26]

• The next Arab governor died on arrival, and Dahir’s son Jaisimha recaptured Brahmanabad and c.720 was granted pardon and inclusion in the administration in return for converting to Islam but soon recanted and split off when the Umayyads were embroiled in a succession crisis. Later Junaid Ibn Abdur Rahman al-Marri killed Jaisimha and recaptured the territory before his successors once again struggled to hold and keep it. During the Abassid period c.870 the local Amirs shook off all allegiance to the caliphs and by the 10th century the region was split into two weak states, Mansurah on the lower Indus and Multan on the upper Indus; which was soon captured by Ismailis who set up an independent Fatimid state and destroyed an old and historic temple in Multan that bin Qasim had protected and built a mosque in its place.^[10][27] These successor states did not achieve much and shrank in size. The Arab conquest remained checked in what is not the south of Pakistan for three centuries by powerful Hindu monarchs to the North and east until the arrival of Mahmud of Ghazni.^[28]

• Coastal trade and a Muslim colony in Sindh allowed for cultural exchanges and the arrival of Sufi missionaries to expand Muslim influence.^[29] From Debal, which remained an important port until the 12th century, commercial links with the Persian gulf and the Middle East intensified as Sind became the "hinge of the Indian Ocean Trade and overland passway."^[26]

• Qasim selected the Hanafi school as the guiding school of thought for shariah (Islamic law) in the region and placed a tradition that guided the development of Muslim thought in the region.^[10]

• Port Qasim, Pakistan's second major port is named in honor of Muhammad bin Qasim.^[30]

[edit] See also

• Qutaibah bin Muslim
• Muslim conquests

[edit] Footnotes

[edit] References

• The Chach-Nama. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979.

• Nicholas F. Gier, FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES, Presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May, 2006[3]

• Stanley Lane-Poole, Medieval India under Mohammedan Rule, 712-1764, G.P. Putnam's Sons. New York, 1970

• Schimmel, Annemarie Schimmel, Religionen - Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Brill Academic Publishers, Jan 1, 1980, ISBN 90-04-06117-7

• Appleby, R Scott & Martin E Marty, Fundamentalisms Comprehended, University of Chicago Press, May 1, 2004, ISBN 0-226-50888-9

• Wink, Andre, "Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World", Brill Academic Publishers, Aug 1, 2002, ISBN 0-391-04173-8

• Keay, John, "India: A History", Grove Press, May 1, 2001, ISBN 0-8021-3797-0