Pharaoh (novel)
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Pharaoh (Polish title: Faraon) is the fourth and last major novel by the Polish writer Bolesław Prus. It was composed over a year's time in 1894-95 and was the sole historical novel by an author who had disapproved of historical novels.
Pharaoh is a study of mechanisms of political power, described against the backdrop of the fall of Egypt's Twentieth Dynasty and New Kingdom. It is, at the same time, one of the most compelling literary reconstructions of life at every level of ancient Egyptian society.
Pharaoh has been translated into a score of languages. In 1966 it was adapted as a Polish feature film.
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[edit] History of publication
Pharaoh, like Prus' previous novels, originally appeared in newspaper serialization (1895-96); unlike them, however, it had first been composed in its entirety, rather than being written in chapters from issue to issue. The first book edition, in three volumes (still minus the remarkable epilog, which would be restored later), appeared in 1897. Except in wartime, the book has never been out of print in Poland.
[edit] Subject
Pharaoh's story covers a two-year period ending in 1085 B.C.E. with the demise of the Egyptian Twentieth Dynasty and New Kingdom.
The late Polish Nobel laureate Czesław Miłosz wrote of Pharaoh:
"The daring conception of [Prus'] novel Pharaoh... is matched by its excellent artistic composition. It [may] be [described] as a novel on... mechanism[s] of state power and, as such, is probably unique in world literature of the nineteenth century.... Prus, [in] selecting the reign of 'Pharaoh Ramses XIII' [the last Ramesside was actually Ramses XI] in the eleventh century [B.C.E.], sought a perspective that was detached from... pressures of [topicality] and censorship. Through his analysis of the dynamics of an ancient Egyptian society, he... suggest[s] an archetype of the struggle for power that goes on within any state. [Prus] convey[s] certain views [regarding] the health and illness of civilizations.... Pharaoh [...] is a work worthy of Prus' intellect and [is] one of the best Polish novels."
The protagonist, Ramses, learns that those who would oppose the priesthood are vulnerable to cooption, seduction, subornation, defamation, intimidation or assassination. Perhaps the chief lesson, belatedly absorbed by Ramses, is the importance, to power, of knowledge or science.
As a political novel, Pharaoh became a favorite of Joseph Stalin's. Its English translator, Christopher Kasparek, has recounted presciently wondering, well in advance of the event, whether President John F. Kennedy would meet with a fate like that of the book's young protagonist.
[edit] Plot
Ancient Egypt, at the end of its New-Kingdom period, is experiencing adversities. The deserts are eroding its arable land. The country's population has declined from eight to six million. Foreign peoples are entering Egypt in ever-growing numbers, undermining its unity. The gulf between the peasants and craftsmen, on one hand, and the ruling classes on the other, is growing, exacerbated by the ruling classes' yen for luxury and idleness. The country is becoming ever more deeply indebted to Phoenician merchants, as imported goods destroy native industries.
The Egyptian priesthood, backbone of the bureaucracy and virtual monopolists of knowledge, have grown immensely wealthy at the expense of the pharaoh and the country. Egypt is facing prospective peril at the hands of rising powers to the north: Assyria and Persia.
The 22-year-old crown prince Ramses evolves a strategy that he hopes will arrest the decline of his own power and of Egypt's viability. Ramses plans to win over or subordinate the priesthood, especially the High Priest of Amon, Herhor; obtain for the country's use the treasures that lie stored in the Labyrinth; and wage war against Assyria.
Ramses proves himself a brilliant military commander in a victorious lightning war against the invading Libyans. On succeeding to the throne, he encounters the adamant opposition of the priestly hierarchy to his planned reforms. The broad masses of Egyptian society are drawn to him, but he must still win over or crush the priesthood and their adherents.
In the course of the political intrigue, Ramses' private life becomes hostage to the conflicting interests of the Phoenicians and the Egyptian high priests.
Ramses' ultimate failure is caused by his underestimation of his opponents and by his impatience with priestly obscurantism: along with the chaff of the priests' myths and rituals, he has inadvertently discarded a crucial piece of scientific knowledge.
Ramses is succeeded to the throne by his arch-enemy Herhor, who paradoxically ends up raising treasure from the Labyrinth to finance the social reforms that had been planned by Ramses.
[edit] Inspirations
Pharaoh is unique in Prus' oeuvre as a historical novel. A Positivist by philosophical persuasion, Prus had long argued that historical novels must inevitably distort historic reality. He had, however, eventually come over to the French Positivist critic Hippolyte Taine's view that the arts, including literature, may act as a second means, alongside the sciences, to study reality, including broad historic reality. In fact Prus, in the interests of making certain points, did introduce anachronisms and anatopisms into the novel.
Pharaoh drew from many sources for its inspiration. Depicting the demise of Egypt's New Kingdom three thousand years earlier, the book also reflects the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's demise in 1795, exactly a century before Pharaoh's completion.
A preliminary sketch for Prus' only historical novel was his first historical short story, "A Legend of Old Egypt." This remarkable story shows clear parallels with the subsequent novel in setting, theme and denouement.
"A Legend of Old Egypt," in its turn, had taken inspiration from contemporaneous events: the fatal 1887-88 illnesses of Germany's warlike Kaiser Wilhelm I and of his reform-minded successor, Friedrich III. The latter emperor would, then unbeknown to Prus, survive his ninety-year-old predecessor, but only by ninety-nine days.
In 1893 Prus' old friend Julian Ochorowicz, having returned to Warsaw from a visit to Paris, delivered several public lectures on ancient Egyptian knowledge. Ochorowicz (whom Prus had portrayed in The Doll as the scientist "Ochocki") evidently suggested to Prus that he write a historical novel about ancient Egypt, and provided him books on the subject that he had brought from Paris.
In preparation for composing Pharaoh, Prus made a painstaking study of these and other Egyptological sources, and actually incorporated ancient texts into his novel like tesserae into a mosaic; drawn from one such text was a major character, Ennana. There are as well, throughout the book, numberless echoes of the Bible and of ancient history generally, including Troy and its recent excavation by Heinrich Schliemann.
For certain of the novel's prominent features, Prus — conscientious journalist and scholar that he was — seems to have insisted on having two sources, one of them being based on personal or at least contemporary experience. Thus the historical Egyptian Labyrinth was described in the fifth century B.C.E. in Book II of The Histories of Herodotus by the Father of History, Herodotus, who visited Egypt's entirely stone-built administrative center, pronounced it more impressive than the pyramids, declared it "beyond my power to describe," then proceeded to give a striking description that Prus incorporated bodily into his novel. The Labyrinth was made palpably real for Prus, however, by an 1878 visit he paid to the famous ancient labyrinthine salt mine at Wieliczka, near Kraków in southern Poland. According to the foremost Prus scholar, Zygmunt Szweykowski, "The power of the Labyrinth scenes stems, among other things, from the fact that they echo Prus' own experiences when visiting Wieliczka."
Another dually-determined feature of the novel is the "Suez Canal" that the Phoenician Prince Hiram proposes digging. The modern Suez Canal had been completed by Ferdinand de Lesseps in 1869, a quarter-century before Prus commenced writing Pharaoh. But, as Prus was aware in chapter one, it had had a predecessor in a canal connecting the Nile River with the Red Sea (during Egypt's Middle Kingdom, centuries before the period of the novel).
A third dually-determined feature was inspired by a solar eclipse that Prus had witnessed at Mława, a hundred kilometers north-northwest of Warsaw, on August 19, 1887, the day before his fortieth birthday. Prus likely was also aware of Christopher Columbus' manipulative use of a lunar eclipse on February 29, 1504 — while marooned for a year on Jamaica — in an incident which strikingly resembles the exploitation of a solar eclipse by Ramses' chief antagonist, Herhor, high priest of Amon.
Finally, a fourth dually-determined feature relates to Egyptian beliefs about an afterlife. In 1893, the year before beginning his novel, Prus the skeptic had started taking an intense interest in Spiritualism, attending Warsaw séances, many of which featured the Italian medium, Eusapia Palladino.
Modern Spiritualism had been initiated in 1848 in Hydeville, New York, by the Fox sisters, Katie and Margaret, aged 11 and 15, and had survived even their 1888 confession that forty years earlier they had caused the "spirits'" telegraph-like tapping sounds by snapping their toe joints. Spiritualist "mediums" in America and Europe claimed to communicate through tapping sounds with spirits of the dead, eliciting their secrets and conjuring up voices, music, noises and other antics, and occasionally working "miracles" such as levitation.
Contemporary Spiritualism inspired several of Pharaoh's most striking scenes, especially the secret meeting at the Temple of Seth in Memphis between three Egyptian priests—Herhor, Mefres, Pentuer—and the Chaldean magus-priest Berossus.
Prus, a disciple of Positivist philosophy, harbored an abiding faith in the redemptive virtues of science. As such, he was aware of Eratosthenes' remarkably accurate calculation of the earth's circumference, and the invention of a steam engine by Heron of Alexandria, centuries after the period of his novel, in Alexandrian Egypt. In chapter 60, he fictitiously credits these achievements to the priest Menes, one of three individuals of the identical name who are mentioned or depicted in Pharaoh: Prus was not always fastidious about characters' names.
[edit] Characters' names
Prus indeed took characters' names where he found them, sometimes anachronistically or anatopistically; at other times he apparently invented them. The origins of the names of some prominent characters may be of interest:
- Ramses, the novel's protagonist: the name of two pharaohs of the 19th Dynasty and nine pharaohs of the 20th Dynasty.
- Herhor, high priest of Amon and Ramses' principal antagonist: historic high priest Herihor.
- Pentuer, scribe to Herhor: historic scribe Pentaur.
- Thutmose, Ramses' cousin: a fairly common name, also the name of four pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty.`
- Sarah, Ramses' Jewish mistress; Taphath, Sarah's relative and servant; Gideon, Sarah's father: names drawn from those of Biblical personalities.
- Patrokles, a Greek mercenary general: Patroklos, in Homer's Iliad.
- Ennana, a junior military officer: Egyptian scribe-pupil's name, attached to an ancient text (Ennana's "plaint on the sore lot of a junior officer").
- Queen Nikotris, Ramses' mother: historic Queen Nitocris.
- Dagon, a Phoenician merchant: a Phoenician and Philistine god of agriculture and the earth; the national god of the Philistines.
- Tamar, Dagon's wife (chapters 8, 13): Biblical daughter of David and half-sister of Absalom.
- Dutmose, a peasant (chapter 11): historic scribe Dhutmose, in the reign of Pharaoh Ramses XI.
- Menes (three distinct individuals: the first pharaoh; Sarah's physician; a savant and Pentuer's mentor): Menes, the first Egyptian pharaoh.
- Asarhadon, a Phoenician innkeeper: a variant of "Esarhaddon," an Assyrian king.
- Berossus, a Chaldean priest: Berossus, a Babylonian historian and astrologer who flourished about 300 B.C.E.
- Phut (another name used by Berossus): Phut, a descendant of Noah named in Genesis.
- Cush, a guest at Asarhadon's inn: Cush, a descendant of Noah named in Genesis.
- Hiram, a Phoenician prince: Hiram I, king of Tyre, in Phoenicia.
- Lykon, a young Greek, Ramses' double and nemesis: Lycon, in the Iliad.
- Sargon, an Assyrian envoy: name of two Assyrian kings, the first being the founder of history's first recorded empire.
- Seti, Ramses' infant son by Sarah: Seti I, historic pharaoh, father of Ramses II ("the Great").
- Osokhor, a priest thought (chapter 40) to have sold Egyptian priestly secrets to the Phoenicians: a Meshwesh king who ruled Egypt in the late 21st Dynasty.
- Musawasa, a Libyan prince: the Meshwesh, a Libyan tribe.
- Tehenna, Musavasa's son: "Tjehenu," a generic Egyptian term for "Libyan."
- Dion, a Greek architect: Dion, a historic name that appears in a number of contexts.
- Hebron, Ramses' last mistress: Hebron, a city in present-day Israel.
[edit] Popularity
As a "political novel," Pharaoh has since 1895 gained fresh relevance with each decade. The book's undiminished popularity with readers, however, is as much due to more universal qualities: to a critical but sympathetic view of human nature and the human condition, and to an implicit advocacy for the cultivation of knowledge as a means to mankind's spiritual and material betterment. The book is written in limpid prose, suffused with poetry, leavened with humor.
Pharaoh has been translated into a score of languages: Armenian, Bulgarian, Czech, Dutch, English, Esperanto, Estonian, French, Georgian, German, Hebrew, Hungarian, Lithuanian, Romanian, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Ukrainian. In 1966 it was produced as a Polish feature film.
[edit] References:
- Czesław Miłosz, The History of Polish Literature, New York, Macmillan, 1969.
- Zygmunt Szweykowski, Nie tylko o Prusie: szkice (Not Only about Prus: Sketches), Poznań, Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1967.
- Zygmunt Szweykowski, Twórczość Bolesława Prusa (The Art of Bolesław Prus), 2nd edition, Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1972.
- Jan Wantuła, "Prus i Ochorowicz w Wiśle" ("Prus and Ochorowicz in Wisła"), in Stanisław Fita, ed., Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie (Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus), Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1962, pp. 214-17.
- Herodotus, The Histories, Newly translated and with an Introduction by Aubrey de Selincourt, Harmondsworth, England, Penguin Books, 1965, Book II, pp. 160-61.
- Samuel Eliot Morison, Christopher Columbus, Mariner, Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1955, pp. 184-92.
- Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' Pharaoh and [Jeremiah] Curtin's Translation," The Polish Review, 1986, nos. 2-3, pp. 127-35.
- Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' Pharaoh: the Creation of a Historical Novel," The Polish Review, 1994, no. 1, pp. 45-50.
- Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' Pharaoh: Primer on Power," The Polish Review, 1995, no. 3, pp. 331-34.
- Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' Pharaoh and the Wieliczka Salt Mine," The Polish Review, 1997, no. 3, pp. 349-55.
- Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' Pharaoh and the Solar Eclipse," The Polish Review, 1997, no. 4, pp. 471-78.
- Bolesław Prus, Pharaoh, translated from the Polish by Christopher Kasparek (2nd, revised ed.), Warsaw, Polestar Publications, and New York, Hippocrene Books, 2001.
