Psychohistory
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- For Isaac Asimov's use of the term in science fiction, see psychohistory (fictional).
Psychohistory is the study of the psychological motivations of historical events. It combines the insights of psychotherapy with the research methodology of the social sciences to understand the emotional origin of the social and political behavior of groups and nations, past and present. This field of study is considered by some to have significant differences from the mainstream fields of history and psychology.
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[edit] Description
Psychohistory derives many of its insights from areas that are perceived to be ignored by conventional historians as shaping factors of human history, in particular, the effects of childbirth, parenting practice and child abuse. The historical impact of incest, infanticide and child sacrifice are considered. Psychohistory holds that human societies can change between infanticidal and non-infanticidal practices and has coined the term "early infanticidal childrearing" to describe abuse and neglect observed by many anthropologists. Lloyd deMause, the pioneer of psychohistory, has described a system of psychogenic modes which describe the range of styles of parenting he has observed historically and across cultures.
Many political scientists and historians teach that social behavior is usually for rational reasons rather than irrational ones, and that international violence is often instigated for economic gain. On the other hand, psychohistorians suggest that social behavior may be a self-destructive re-enactment of earlier abuse and neglect; that unconscious flashbacks to early fears and destructive parenting could dominate the individual about social behavior.
Psychohistory has been credited with helping to revitalize the historical biography. Notable examples of psychobiographies are those of Lewis Namier, who wrote about the British House of Commons and Fawn Brodie, who wrote about Thomas Jefferson.
[edit] Areas of Psychohistorical Study
There are three inter-related areas of psychohistorical study.
- The History of Childhood - which looks at such questions as:
- How have children been raised throughout history
- How has the family been constituted
- How and why have practices changed over time
- The changing place and value of children in society over time
- How and why our views of child abuse and neglect have changed
- Psychobiography - which seeks to understand individual historical people and their motivations in history.
- Group Psychohistory - which seeks to understand the motivations of large groups, including nations, in history and current affairs. In doing so, psychohistory advances the use of group-fantasy analysis of political speeches, political cartoons and media headlines since the fantasy words therein offer clues to unconscious thinking and behaviors.
[edit] Emergence as a Discipline
Sigmund Freud's well known work, Civilization and Its Discontents (1929), included an analysis of history based on his theory of psychoanalysis.
Wilhelm Reich combined his psychoanalytic and political theories in his book Mass Psychology of Fascism in 1933.
The psychologist and philosopher Erich Fromm wrote about the psychological motivation behind political ideology, starting with The Fear of Freedom in 1941.
Its first academic use appeared in Erik Erikson's book Young Man Luther (1958), where the author called for a discipline of "psycho-history" to examine the impact of human character on history.
Lloyd deMause developed a formal psychohistorical approach from 1974 onwards, and continues to be an influential theorist in this field.
Other notable psychohistorians include Alice Miller and Julian Jaynes, though they are rarely thought of as being specifically psychohistorians.
[edit] Independence as a Discipline
DeMause and others have argued that psychohistory is a separate field of scholarly inquiry with its own particular methods, objectives and theories, which set it apart from conventional historical analysis and anthropology. Some historians, social scientists and anthropologists have, however, argued that their disciplines already describe psychological motivation and that Psychohistory is not, therefore, a separate subject.
Others have dismissed deMause's theories and motives arguing that the emphasis given by Psychohistory to speculation on the psychological motivations of people in history make it an undisciplined field of study. Doubt has also been cast on the viability of the application of post-mortem psychoanalysis by Freud's followers [1] [2]. One of the most famous studies among Freud's writings is a post-mortem analysis of Daniel Paul Schreber.
Psychohistorians maintain that the difference is one of emphasis and that, in conventional study, narrative and description are central, while psychological motivation is hardly touched on. In Psychohistory, motivation takes the center stage. In his books and articles deMause makes the case that Psychohistory is a legitimate scholarly approach to the social implications of childrearing modes throughout history.
[edit] Psychogenic mode
A "psychogenic mode" in Psychohistory is a type of mentality (or psychoclass) that results from, and is associated with, a particular childrearing style.
The major psychogenic modes described by Lloyd deMause are:
| Mode | Childrearing Characteristics | Historical Manifestations |
|---|---|---|
| Infanticidal | Early infanticidal childrearing: High infanticide rates, incest, body mutilation, child rape, tortures and emotional abandonment by parents. |
Child sacrifice and infanticide, hardening, ghosts and magic, child sale. Early states began child sacrifice, at first mainly to mother-goddesses to satisfy the intojected “dragon mother” (Jung’s term). |
| Late infanticidal childrearing: As the child’s symbiosis with the infanticidal mother began to be reduced, children were sent out to others at an early age; men used them as poison containers: both sexually and as sacrificial victims and as warriors. |
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| Abandoning | Early Christians considered a child as having a soul at birth, although possessed by evil tendencies. Routine infanticide was replaced by joining in the group fantasy of the sacrifice of Christ, who was sent by his father to be killed for the sins of others. Routine pederasty of boys continued in monasteries and elsewhere, and the rape of girls was commonplace. | Longer swaddling, fosterage, outside wetnursing, oblation of children to monasteries & nunneries, and apprenticeship. |
| Ambivalent | Parents began to sustain ambivalence —both love and hate— towards children. The twelfth century saw the first child instruction manuals and rudimentary child protection laws, although most mothers still emotionally rejected their children. Children were often treated as erotic objects by adults. | Enemas, early beating, shorter swaddling, mourning for deceased children, a precursor to empathy. |
| Intrusive | During the sixteenth century, particularly in England, parents shifted from trying to stop children’s growth to trying to control them and make them obedient. Parents were prepared to give them attention as long as they controlled their minds, their insides, their anger and the lives they led. | Early toilet training, repression of child's sexuality, end of swaddling and wet-nursing, empathy now possible, rise of pediatrics. |
| Socializing | Beginning in the eighteenth century, mothers began to actually enjoy child care, and fathers began to participate in younger children’s development. The aim remained instilling parental goals rather than encouraging individuation. Psychological manipulation and spanking were used to make children obedient. The Socializing Mode remains the most popular model of parenting in North America and Western Europe to the present day. | Use of guilt, "mental discipline", humiliation, rise of compulsory schooling, delegation of parental unconscious wishes. |
| Helping | Beginning in the mid-twentieth century, some parents adopted the role of helping children reach their own goals in life, rather than "socialize" them into fulfilling parental wishes. Less psychological manipulation, more unconditional love. Children raised in this way are far more empathic towards others in society than earlier generations. | Children's rights movement, deschooling and free schooling, natural childbirth, Taking Children Seriously. |
The chart below shows the dates at which these modes are believed to have evolved in the most advanced nations, based on contemporary accounts from historical records. A black and white version of the chart appears in Foundations of Psychohistory (deMause, 1982 p. 61). The timeline doesn't apply to hunter-gatherer societies or even to the Greek and Roman world, where there was a wide variation in childrearing practices. It is notable that the arrival of the Ambivalent mode of child-rearing preceded the start of the Renaissance (mid 1300's) by only one or two generations, and the arrival of the Socializing mode coincided with the Age of Enlightenment, which began in the late 1700's.
Newspaper reports of child abuse (e.g., the exposure of baby girls in India explains why millions of women are “missing” in that country) demonstrate that the earlier forms of childrearing coexist with later modes, even in the most advanced countries. However, the chart should not be regarded as an accurate representation of the relative prevalence of each mode in the present day, as it is not based on large-scale, formal surveys.
[edit] A psychoclass for postmodern times
In The Emotional Life of Nations deMause wrote: "My conclusion from a lifetime of study of the history of childhood is that society is founded upon the abuse of children". According to the psychogenic theory, since Neanderthal man most tribes and families practiced infanticide, child mutilation, incest and beating of their children throughout prehistory and history. Presently the Western socializing mode of childrearing is considered much less abusive in the field, though this mode is not yet entirely free of abuse.
- "Each generation begins anew with fresh, eager, trusting faces of babies, ready to love and create a new world. And each generation of parents tortures, abuses, neglects, and dominates its children until they become emotionally crippled adults who repeat in nearly exact detail the social violence and domination that existed in previous decades" (deMause 2002, p. 97).
There is notwithstanding an optimistic trait in the field. Psychohistorians believe that when violence against children disappears the murderous drive of serial killers and terrorists will fade away [3]. Political violence of any other sort will disappear as well, along with religion itself, magical thinking, mental disorders, crime, jails, wars and other inhumanities of man against man (ibid, pp. 391, 430ff). [4]
[edit] Organizations and Centers of Study
The principal centre for psychohistorical study is The Institute for Psychohistory which has 19 branches around the globe and has for over 30 years published the Journal of Psychohistory.
The International Psychohistorical Association, is the professional organization for the field of psychohistory. It publishes Psychohistory News and has a psychohistorical mail order lending library. It hosts an annual convention.
Psychohistory is taught at a few universities as an adjunct to history or social science or as a post graduate study. The following have published course details: Boston University, City University of New York, University of Nevada, State University of New York at Rockland, and Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut.
[edit] Notable psychohistorians
- Rudolph Binion, Professor of Modern European History, Brandeis University (see faculty bio).
- Lloyd deMause, founder of The Institute for Psychohistory.
- Robert Jay Lifton, a psychiatrist specializing in psychological motivations for war and terrorism.
- Peter Loewenberg, Department of History, UCLA (see faculty bio).
- Bruce Mazlish, Professor of History, Emeritus, MIT (see faculty bio).
- Charles Strozier, Professor of History, Graduate Center, CUNY (see resumé at the Center for Millennial Studies).
[edit] See also
- Alice Miller
- Early infanticidal childrearing - Further explanation of psychohistory theory
- Historicism - One aspect of which seeks to discover the "rhythms", "patterns", "laws" or "trends" that underlie the evolution of history.
- Lloyd deMause
- Poisonous pedagogy
- Trauma model of mental disorders
[edit] Compare with
- Psychogeography - "The study of specific effects of the geographical environment, consciously organized or not, on the emotions and behavior of individuals."
[edit] References
- ^ [1] Review of Shrinking History on Freud and the Failure of Psychohistory - Reviewed by Cosma Shalizi
- Note: The book under review criticizes the Freudian approach to psychohistory. It makes no mention of deMause or The Institute for Psychohistory.
- ^ Hunt, Lynn, CSC Conferences & Symposia paper, Psychoanalysis, the Self, and Historical Interpretation History Pennsylvania [2]
- deMause, Lloyd, Foundations of Psychohistory, Creative Roots Pub, ISBN 0-940508-01-X (January 1982). (available free on www [5])
- deMause, Lloyd, The Emotional Life of Nations, Publisher: Other Press; ISBN 1-892746-98-0 (June 1, 2002). (available free on www [6])
- Lawton, Henry W., The Psychohistorian's Handbook, New York: Psychohistory Press, ISBN 0-914434-27-6 (1989)
- Loewenberg, Peter, Decoding the Past: The Psychohistorical Approach, Transaction Pub, ISBN 1-56000-846-6 (August 2002)
- Szaluta, Jacques, Psychohistory: Theory and Practice, Publisher Peter Lang, ISBN 0-8204-1741-6 (Published in 1999)
[edit] Critical
- Stannard, David E., Shrinking History, On Freud and the Failure of Psychohistory, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-503044-3 (1980). A critique of the Freudian approach to psychohistory.
[edit] External links
- Child abuse and mistreatment - Alice Miller official website
- The Institute for Psychohistory. This website contains over 1,500 pages of psychohistorical articles and books.
- International Psychohistorical Association. The professional organization for the field of psychohistory.
- Psychohistory Discussion List
- The Independence of Psychohistory. Arguments by a psychohistorian on the independence of the subject.
- German Society for Psychohistorical Research (in German).
- Psychogenic theory of history. On the website of The Institute for Psychohistory.
- The mystery of Inca child sacrifice. Archeological discoveries in Peru, with photographs of preserved victims. From Discovery Channel Canada.
- BabyReview.com. A parody of harsh parenting attitudes, exemplified by books from Amazon.com's inventory.
