Ethic of reciprocity

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The ethic of reciprocity or "The Golden Rule" is a fundamental moral principle found in virtually all major religions and cultures, which simply means "treat others as you would like to be treated." It is arguably the most essential basis for the modern concept of human rights. Principal philosophers and religious figures have stated it in different ways:

• "Love your neighbor as yourself." — Moses (ca. 1525-1405 BCE) in the Torah, Leviticus 19:18
• "What you do not wish upon yourself, extend not to others." — Confucius (ca. 551–479 BCE)
• "What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow man." — Hillel (ca. 50 BCE-10 CE)
• "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." — Jesus (ca. 5 BCE—33 CE) in the Gospels, Luke 6:31; Luke 10:27 (affirming of Moses)— Matthew 7:12
• "Hurt no one so that no one may hurt you." — Muhammad (c. 571 – 632 CE) in The Farewell Sermon.

Contents 1 Interpretation 1.1 Not tit for tat 1.2 Not non-aggression 1.3 Criticism: Not a "rule" 1.4 Tolerance 2 Religion 2.1 Universal command 2.2 Subsidiary to love for God 2.3 Hinduism 2.4 Sikhism 2.5 Buddhism 2.6 Judaism 2.7 Christianity 2.8 Islam 2.9 Confucianism 2.10 Bahá'í 3 Other examples 4 History 5 Effects of the Golden Rule on politics 6 Reciprocal altruism and tit for tat 7 Footnotes 8 Notes 9 See also 10 External links 10.1 Practical applications of the golden rule to our real world problems 10.2 The general application of the golden rule 10.3 Other external links

[edit] Interpretation

The rule is meaningless without identifying the recipient and the situation. Otherwise, a depressed person who wishes to be killed would be morally obligated to kill others. It has to include an attempt to put yourself in the recipient's shoes and evaluate how you would wish to be treated if you were in their situation. Another way to rewrite the rule would be "treat others as you would like to be treated, if you were them".

[edit] Not tit for tat

The ethic of reciprocity, or Golden Rule of ethics can further be understood in terms of what it is not. The ethic of reciprocity should not be confused with tit for tat, revenge, an eye for an eye or retributive justice. A key element of the ethic of reciprocity is that a person attempting to live by this rule treats all people, not just members of his or her in-group, with consideration. Mahatma Gandhi famously said, "An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind".

[edit] Not non-aggression

The ethics of reciprocity should not be confused with another major ethical principle, often known as Wiccan Rede, harm principle, or liberty principle (non-aggression principle) which is an ethical prohibition against aggression. This rule is also an ethical rule of "licence" or "right", that is people can do anything they like as long as it does not harm others. This rule does not compel one to help the other in need. On the other hand, "the golden rule is a good standard which is further improved by doing unto others, wherever possible, as they want to be done by." Karl Popper (The Open Society and Its Enemies, Vol. 2)

[edit] Criticism: Not a "rule"

The ethic of reciprocity or Golden Rule of ethics, should not be confused with a "rule" in the semantic or logical sense. A logical loophole in the positive form of Golden "rule" is that it would require a masochist to harm others, even without their consent, if that is what the masochist would wish for himself. This loophole can be addressed by invoking a supplementary rule, which is sometimes called the silver rule^{[citation needed]}. This states "treat others in the way that they wish to be treated". The silver rule could demand that the golden rule be re-written as "Do unto others as they would have done unto them". However, the golden rule may create another logical loophole. In a situation where an individual's background or belief may offend the sentiment of the majority, the golden rule may imply ethical majoritarianism if the Golden rule was to be enforced as if it were a law. An absurd example may be Adolf Hitler's reference to Otto Weininger, which was something in the effect of "There was only one decent Jew, and he killed himself." Weininger was a Christian convert with a Jewish background who was well known for his view about supposed superiority of Christianity and Christian character over Judaism and Jewishness.

[edit] Tolerance

Ethical teaching interprets the Golden Rule as mutual respect for one's neighbour (rather than as a deontological or consequentialist rule.) Most of us know that different people have different faiths or ideological beliefs, different preferences concerning sex or other matters, and may belong to a different cultural heritage.George Bernard Shaw once said that "The golden rule is that there are no golden rules".

[edit] Religion

[edit] Universal command

Older Eastern culture formulations (Confucius, Hillel) tend to be passive or negative, while in Western culture, it is most commonly rendered as an active or proscriptive form, beginning with "do", "love" or "treat." This traditional guiding rule was (and is) so highly valued that it has for centuries been known in English as the "Golden Rule." Major religions give the Golden Rule as a universal moral command or religious duty. Most religious expressions of the Golden Rule explicitly state a positive moral command (or imply a religious duty) as a virtue to love others or treat others as oneself. e.g.,

Moses in the Torah recorded the command "Love your neighbor as your self." (Leviticus 19:18)

Jesus affirmed Moses by giving the equivalent Golden Rule "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." (Matthew 7:12) Jesus also reaffirmed Hillel's commentary on Moses' command - "Love your neighbor as yourself" - identifying it as the Second Command. (Matthew 22:39) The original meaning of neighbor was fellow Jew, but when asked who counted as a neighbor, Jesus extended the meaning with his parable about a Samaritan helping a Jew. In those days, it was not uncommon for Jews and Samaritans to add many miles to their journeys in order to travel around the next door tribe, rather than passing through the lands owned by the opposing tribe. (Luke 10:25-37) Jesus then affirmed Hillel's statement that supreme love for God and the Golden Rule sums up or is "the Law and the Prophets." (Matthew 7:12)

[edit] Subsidiary to love for God

The Monotheistic Religions Judaism and Christianity teach that the Golden Rule and other moral commands on human relations are subsidiary to commands relating to God. e.g., Jesus explicitly identified the Great Commandment as supreme love for God, affirming the Torah. (Mark 12:30 Deuteronomy 6:5) (Jesus gave the supreme command - "Love one another as I have loved you" - equivalent to Moses' Great Commandment) (John 13:34) By categorizing "Love your neighbor as yourself" as the Second command, Jesus placed the Golden Rule and human relationships as subsidiary to one's relationship to God, (and to his command to love others with total self sacrificing love).

[edit] Hinduism

The true rule of life is to guard and do by the things of others as they do by their own.

"This is the sum of the Dharma: Do naught unto others which would cause you pain if done to you" (Mahabharata 5:15:17)

"One should not behave towards others in a way which is disagreeable to oneself. This is the essence of morality. All other activities are due to selfish desire." - Mahabharata, Anusasana Parva, 113.8

Wound not others, do no one injury by thought or deed, utter no word to pain thy fellow creatures. (The Ordinances of Manu)

The Golden Rule has many similarities to the Hindu belief in karma.

[edit] Sikhism

"As you see yourself, see others as well; only then will you become a partner in heaven." Bhagat Kabir GGS 480

"Compassion-mercy and religion are the support of the entire world". Japji Sahib GGS

"Don't create enmity with anyone as God is within everyone." Guru Arjan Devji GGS 259

"No one is my enemy, none a stranger and everyone is my friend." Guru Arjan Dev GGS 1299

"We obtain salvation by loving our fellow man and God." (Granth Japji 21)

Note:GGS is an acronym for Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh Holy Scriptures.

[edit] Buddhism

Ethics of reciprocity is fundamental to Buddhism. This is partly due to the fact that Buddhism, unlike theistic religions, does not rely on divine revelation. Therefore, in Buddhism, all aspects of teaching are regarded as wisdom rather than supernaturally derived and are to be undertaken voluntarily rather than as "commandments." For example, the first of the Five Precepts (Panca-sila) of Buddhism is to abstain from destruction of life. The justification of the precept is given in Chapter 10 of the Dhammapada, which states:

"Everyone fears punishment; everyone fears death, just as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill. Everyone fears punishment; everyone loves life, as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill."

According to the second of Four Noble Truths of Buddhism, egoism (desire, craving or attachment) are rooted in ignorance and is considered as the cause of all suffering. Consequently, kindness, compassion and equanimity is regarded as the untainted aspect of human nature.

"One should seek for others the happiness one desires for one's self."

"Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful." (Udana-Varga 5:18)

"I will act towards others exactly as I would act towards myself." (The Siglo-Vada Sutta, about 500 BCE)

"Comparing oneself to others in such terms as 'Just as I am so are they, just as they are so am I,' he should neither kill nor cause others to kill." (Sutta Nipata 705)

"In five ways should a clansman minister to his friends and familiars, .... by treating them as he treats himself." (Sigalovada Sutta 31)

"Is there a deed, Rahula, thou dost wish to do? Then bethink thee thus: Is this deed conducive to my own harm, or to others harm, or to that of both? Then is this a bad deed entailing suffering. Such a deed must thou surely not do." (Majjhima Nikaya 1.415)

"The Ariyan disciple thus reflects, Here am I, fond of my life, not wanting to die, fond of pleasure and averse from pain. Suppose someone should rob me of my life... it would not be a thing pleasing and delightful to me. If I, in my turn, should rob of his life one fond of his life, not wanting to die, one fond of pleasure and averse from pain, it would not be a thing pleasing or delightful to him. For a state that is not pleasant or delightful to me must also be to him also; and a state that is not pleasing or delightful to me, how could I inflict that upon another? As a result of such reflection he himself abstains from taking the life of creatures and he encourages others so to abstain, and speaks in praise of so abstaining." (Samyutta Nikaya v.353)

[edit] Judaism

Here, the Golden Rule, as it became known to later Western tradition, finds its origin. The Hebrew Bible, states:

"Thou shalt not avenge, nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people, but thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself: I am the LORD." Leviticus 19:18.

This is one of the most famous and oft-quoted principles from the entire Bible. While this statement sounds universal in its scope to modern ears, the term "neighbor" meant roughly "kinsman."

"Take heed to thyself, my child, in all thy works; and be discreet in all thy behavior. And what thou thyself hatest, do to no man." (Tobit 4:14-15)

Another significant statement in Judaism concerning the Ethic of reciprocity is uttered by Hillel the Elder (Talmud, Shabbat 31a) as the essence of Judaism (literally worded "on one foot").

"A certain heathen came to Shammai and said to him, "Make me a proselyte, on condition that you teach me the whole Torah in the time I can stand on one foot." Thereupon he repulsed him with the rod which was in his hand. When he went to Hillel, Hillel said to him, 'What is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbor: that is the whole Torah; all the rest of it is commentary; go and learn." (Talmud, Shabbat 31a)

Further information: Hillel the Elder#The Golden Rule

[edit] Christianity

Part of the Lord's Prayer:

Forgive us our [debts], as we forgive our [debtors]. (Some translations of Matthew 6:12 have debts or trespasses, while Luke 11:4 has sins)

“Love your neighbor as yourself” (Matthew 19:19; 22:39) (Mark 12:31) (Luke 10:27) (Romans 13:9) (James 2:8)

“So in everything, do to others what you would have them do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets.” (Matthew 7:12)

"Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them: for this is the law and the prophets." (Matthew 7:12)

"For all the law is fulfilled in one word, even in this; Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." (Galatians 5:14)

"Teacher, which is the great commandment in the law?" Jesus said to him, "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind. This is the great and first commandment. And a second is like it, You shall love your neighbor as yourself. On these two commandments depend all the law and the prophets." (Bible, Matthew 22.36-40)

"Give to everyone who asks you, and if anyone takes what belongs to you, do not demand it back. And as ye would that men should do to you, do ye also to them likewise." (Luke 6:30-31)

"...and don't do what you hate...", (Gospel of Thomas)

"And, behold, a certain lawyer stood up, and tempted him, saying, Master, what shall I do to inherit eternal life? He said unto him, What is written in the law? how readest thou? And he answering said, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy strength, and with all thy mind; and thy neighbor as thyself. And he said unto him, Thou hast answered right: this do, and thou shalt live." (Luke 10:25-28)

"Owe no man anything, but to love one another: for he that loveth another hath fulfilled the law. For this, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not kill, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Thou shalt not covet; and if there be any other commandment, it is briefly comprehended in this saying, namely, Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. Love worketh no ill to his neighbor: therefore love is the fulfilling of the law." (Romans 13:8-10)

In his parable of the Good Samaritan, Jesus expanded the concept of "neighbor" beyond its traditional meaning as "kinsman."

[edit] Islam

"No one of you is a believer until he desires for his brother that which he desires for himself." (Sunnah. Forty Hadith of an-Nawawi 13)

"None of you [truly] believes until he wishes for his brother what he wishes for himself." (Number 13 of Imam "Al-Nawawi's Forty Hadiths." 7th Century CE)

"... regard the life and property of every Muslim as a sacred trust. Return the goods entrusted to you to their rightful owners. Hurt no one so that no one may hurt you." — Muhammad, The Farewell Sermon.

Do not say that if people do good to us, we will do good to them, and if people oppress us, we will oppress them. Instead determine that if people do good to you, you will do good to them; and if they oppress you, you will not oppress them. — "The Sayings of Muhammad" with a foreword by Mahatma Gandhi ^[1]

If anyone harms (others), God will harm him, and if anyone shows hostility to others, God will show hostility to him." Sunan of Abu-Dawood, Hadith 1625.

[edit] Confucianism

"What you do not wish upon yourself, extend not to others."

-- Analects of Confucius, Chapter 15, Verse 3 [1], c. 500 B.C.

According to Wing-tsit Chan's A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, the ethic of reciprocity appears in the Analects of Confucius, Chapter 4, in the discussion of i-kuan (pinyin: yi guan), the "one thread" that combines chung (altruism) and shu (conscientiousness):

Confucian teachings may be summed up in the phrase "one thread" (i-kuan), but Confucianists have not agreed on what it means....All agree, however on the meanings of chung and shu, which are best expressed by Chu Hsi, namely, chung means the full development of one's [originally good] mind and shu means the extension of that mind to others. As Ch'eng I put it, chung is the Way of Heaven, whereas shu is the way of man; the former is substance, while the latter is function. Liu Pao-nan is correct in equating chung with Confucius' saying, "Establish one's own character," and shu with "Also establish the character of others." Here is the positive version of the Confucian golden rule.

Liu Pao-nan is citing Analects 6:28, but according to Dr. Chan, the same principle appears in Analects 14:45: "To cultivate oneself so as to give all people security and peace, even Yao and Shun found it difficult to do."

"Tzu-kung asked, 'Is there one word that can serve as a principle of conduct for life?' Confucius replied, 'It is the word 'shu' -- reciprocity. Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire.'" (Analects 15.23)

"Try your best to treat others as you would wish to be treated yourself, and you will find that this is the shortest way to benevolence." (Mencius VII.A.4)

Surely it is the maxim of loving-kindess: Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you. (Analects 15:23 about 500 BCE)

When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the principle of reciprocity, he is not far from the path. What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to others. Doctrine of the Mean 13.3 (Li Ki 28.1.32, SBE 38.305)

What a man dislikes in his superiors, let him not display in the treatment of his inferiors; what he dislikes in inferiors, let him not display in the service of his superiors; what he hates in those who are before hi, let him not therewith precede those who are behind him; what he hates in those who are behind hi, let him not therewith follow those who are before him; what he hates to receive on the right, let him not bestow on the left; what he hates to receive on the left, let him not bestow on the right : - this is what is called "The principle with which, as with a measuring-square, to regulate one's conduct." (The Great Learning 10.2)

[edit] Bahá'í

“Ascribe not to any soul that which thou wouldst not have ascribed to thee, and say not that which thou doest not. Blessed is he who prefers his brother before himself” Baha’u’llah Tablets of Baha’u’llah 6.71

"And if thine eyes be turned towards justice, choose thou for thy neighbour that which thou choosest for thyself." (Epistle to the Son of the Wolf. Baha’u’llah Tablets of Baha’u’llah 6.64)

“Wish not for others what you wish not for yourselves” Baha’u’llah Aqdas 148.73

“The seeker should not wish for others that which he does not wish for himself, nor promise that which he does not fulfil” Baha’u’llah Kitab-i-Iqan 194, Gleanings from the Writings of Baha’u’llah 125.266

“Lay not on any soul a load which ye would not wish to be laid upon you, and desire not for anyone the things ye would not desire for yourselves” Baha'u'llah, Summons of the Lord of Hosts 544 & Gleanings from the Writings of Baha’u’llah 66.128

"Wherefore must the loved ones of God associate in affectionate fellowship with stranger and friend alike, showing forth to all the utmost loving-kindness, disregarding the degree of their capacity, never asking whether they deserve to be loved. In every instance let the friends be considerate and infinitely kind. Let them never be defeated by the malice of the people, by their aggression and their hate, no matter how intense. If others hurl their darts against you, offer them milk and honey in return; if they poison your lives, sweeten their souls; if they injure you, teach them how to be comforted; if they inflict a wound upon you, be a balm to their sores; if they sting you, hold to their lips a refreshing cup."

[edit] Other examples

• "Selfishness is not living as one wishes to live, it is asking others to live as one wishes to live."

-Oscar Wilde

While this inverted formulation does not encompass the entire concept of the golden rule, it does have the advantage of emphasising respect for others' identity and ideals, which is included in most other forms but is easily be ignored if the golden rule is considered exclusive to the physical elements of human interaction, rather than being inclusive of all elements of human interaction.

• "Treat your inferiors as you would be treated by your superiors."

-Seneca the Younger, Epistulae morales ad Lucilium 47:11, 1st century

It was named the "Meta-Golden Rule" by Vernor Vinge ^[2].

• "All human morality is contained in these words: make others as happy as you yourself would be, and never serve them more ill than you would yourself be served."

-Marquis de Sade, Dialogue Between a Priest and a Dying Man

“It is not fair to ask of others what you are unwilling to do yourself.” (Anna Eleanor Roosevelot)

"We should bear ourselves toward others as we would desire they should bear themselves toward us." (Aristotle)

"What you would avoid suffering yourself, seek not to impose on others." (Epictetus, circa 100 CE)

"You should always ask yourself what would happen if everyone did what you are doing." (Jean-Paul Sartre)

"May I do to others as I would that they should do unto me." (Plato)

“Each man takes care that his neighbor shall not cheat him. But a day comes when he begins to care that he does not cheat his neighbor. Then all goes well - he has changed his market-cart into a chariot of the sun.” (Ralph Waldo Emerson)

“One of the most potent of the weapons of influence around us is the rule for reciprocation. The rule says that we should try to repay, in kind, what another person has provided us.” (Robert B Cialdini)

"Whatever is disagreeable to yourself do not do unto others." (Shayast)

"Do not do to others that which would anger you if others did it to you."

"What stirs your anger when done to you by others, that do not do to others." (Socrates)

Refraining from doing what we blame in others. (Thales, Diogenes Laertius, vol I, page 39)

One should be "contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow against himself." (Thomas Hobbes)

[edit] History

• 1970 - 1640s BCE "This is an ordinance: Act for the man who acts, to cause him to act. This is thanking him for what he does." - The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant In line B1 142 page 64 of The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems, tr. R.B. Parkinson OUP.
• ~1280 - 650 BCE "You shall not take vengeance or bear a grudge against your countrymen. Love your fellow as yourself: I am the LORD." - Moses, Tanakh, new JPS translation, Leviticus (Leviticus 19:18), Judaism.
• ~700 BCE "That nature only is good when it shall not do unto another whatever is not good for its own self." - Dadistan-i-Dinik 94:5, Zoroastrianism.
• ? BCE "Whatever is disagreeable to yourself do not do unto others." - Shayast-na-Shayast 13:29, Zoroastrianism.
• ~500 BCE "Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful." - Udana-Varga 5:18, Buddhism.
• ~500 BCE "The Sage...makes the self of the people his self." Tao Te Ching Ch 49, tr. Ch'u Ta-Kao, Unwin Paperbacks, 1976. Daoism
• ~500 BCE "What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others." Analects of Confucius 15:24, Confucianism, tr. James Legge.[2]
• ~500 BCE "Now the man of perfect virtue, wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others. To be able to judge of others by what is near in ourselves; this may be called the art of virtue." Analects of Confucius 6:30, Confucianism, tr. James Legge. [3]
• ~500 BCE "One word that can serve as a principle of conduct for life [is] reciprocity. Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire." - Doctrine of the Mean 13.3, Confucianism.
• ~500 BCE "Therefore, neither does he cause violence to others nor does he make others do so." - Acarangasutra 5.101-2, Jainism.
• ~300 BCE "One should not behave towards others in a way which is disagreeable to oneself. This is the essence of morality. All other activities are due to selfish desire." - Mahabharata, Anusasana Parva 113.8, Hinduism [4]
• ~300 BCE "It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly (agreeing 'neither to harm nor be harmed'). And it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life." - Epicurus
• ~180 BCE "What you hate, do not do to anyone." - The Book of Tobit 4:15, NRSV translation, Judaism.
• ~150 BCE "This is the sum of duty: Do naught unto others which would cause you pain if done to you." - Mahabharata 5:1517, Brahmanism and Hinduism.
• ~100 CE "What you feel painful to yourself, do not do to others." - Tiruvalluvar, Tirukkural 316.
• ~100 CE "What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow man. This is the law: all the rest is commentary." - Hillel the Elder; Talmud, Shabbat 31a, Judaism.
• ~30 CE "So in everything, do unto others as you would have them do unto you, for this sums up the law and the prophets." Jesus- Sermon on the Mount, Gospel of Matthew (Matthew 7:12 NIV), Christianity
• ~100 CE "What you would avoid suffering yourself, seek not to impose on others." - Epictetus.
• ~600 CE "Hurt no one so that no one may hurt you." — Muhammad in The Farewell Sermon.
• 1785: "Act as if the maxim of thy action were to become by thy will a universal law of nature." - Kant's categorical imperative.
• ~1808 "Identity is the identity of identity and non-identity." - Hegel's reflexive, antisymmetric identity, X = not(X), at foundation of all moral systems.
• ~1870 "He should not wish for others what he does not wish for himself." - Bahá'u'lláh, Kitab-i-Aqdas 148.73 Bahá'í Faith.
• ~1890 "And if thine eyes be turned towards justice, choose thou for thy neighbour that which thou choosest for thyself." - Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, 30, Bahá'í Faith.
• ~1940 "An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind." - Gandhi
• 1945: "The golden rule ... is further improved by doing unto others, wherever possible, as they want to be done by." - Karl Popper (The Open Society and Its Enemies, Vol. 2)
• 1999: "Don't do things you wouldn't want to have done to you." - British Humanist Association, Humanism.

[edit] Effects of the Golden Rule on politics

• The Golden Rule as taught by Confucius was also referred to in Capra's Why We Fight Series to portray China as a free nation of peaceful people fighting against Axis aggression and oppression.

• It is said that China, in its long history, did not concern itself much with the expansion of its national boundary due to the Chinese devotion to the Golden Rule as taught by Confucius.^{[citation needed]}

The more accurate reason for this action of China throughout its history is because they see themselves as one big family, and everyone else is outside of that. Since many things in Chinese culture depends on your relations (at least used to), and since other nations are outside, they didn't see other nations to be of interest. It would be seen as a full family getting another set of parents, adopt several children when they already have some, really uneeded.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Reciprocal altruism and tit for tat

In evolutionary biology, reciprocal altruism is a form of altruism in which one organism provides a benefit to another in the expectation of future reciprocation. This is equivalent to the Tit for tat strategy in game theory for the iterated prisoner's dilemma. Four main conditions of the strategy are

1. Unless provoked, the agent will always cooperate

2. If provoked, the agent will retaliate

3. The agent is quick to forgive

4. The agent must have a ⅔ chance of competing against the opponent more than once.

For several decades Tit-for-Tat was the most effective strategy for playing the game, winning in annual automated tournaments against (generally far more complex) strategies created by teams of computer scientists, economists, and psychologists. Moreover, Tit-for-Tat still is the most effective strategy if you compare the average performance of each competing team. Game theorists informally believed the strategy to be optimal (although no proof was presented).

This implies that ethics of reciprocity may be somewhat compatible with both reciprocal altruism and cooperative egoism providing philosophical middle ground between ethical altruism and ethical egoism. However, in the game of iterated prisoner's dilemma, each players are set as equal. If one player is dominant in the game from the outset, it may be advantageous for such a player to abandon the cooperation and betray other players, resulting in a suboptimal outcome from the collective point of view.

The ethics of reciprocity, on the other hand, presuppose from the outset that everyone is equal no matter what. However, many actual articulations of ethics of reciprocity in history provide an exemption in the context of the violation of cooperation from the other party. This indicates that the golden rule may have had significant utilitarian justification as well as deontological justification.

As applied in Bambi, the ethics of reciprocity include abstaining from speech in the case that one has nothing nice to say.

[edit] Footnotes

• ^{1  1b  1c}  JFK's 11 June 1963 "Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights," transcript from the JFK library. Partly described (and multiply quoted) in the text above. As described in graphic 1963 events, President Kennedy sent his civil rights bill to Congress on 19 June 1963 leading to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 via the Congressional give-and-take described there.
• ^{2a  2b}  Harry Gensler's essay, The Golden Rule, published in the Blackwell Dictionary of Business Ethics (Routledge 1997 ISBN 1-55786-942-1). For more background, and for more information about the golden rule, plus links and lists of books about it, see his website The Golden Rule. His links include his teaching website, Web Exercises.

[edit] Notes

1. ^ http://muslim-canada.org/milad.htm
2. ^ Vinge, V. The Coming Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post-Human Era, 1993 (text here)

[edit] See also

• Categorical imperative
• Competitions
• Ethics in religion
• Forgiveness
• Inalienable rights
• Karma
• Moral universalism
• Natural rights
• Other
• Preemptive attack - antonymic (related to revenge)
• Reciprocal altruism
• Reciprocity (social psychology)
• Survival of the fittest
• Tit for tat
• Wild Animals

[edit] External links

[edit] Practical applications of the golden rule to our real world problems

1. Application to racism in the United States in 1963, 1964, partly described in the text and the above (footnote)[1c].
2. Application to terrorism.
3. UNESCO report on global ethics.
4. A sample of applications to business. The golden rule is also in business books, e.g., the Blackwell book in the above (footnote)[2b].

[edit] The general application of the golden rule

1. David Keating's Golden Rule Radical
2. Bill McGinnis's Committee for the Golden Rule.
3. How to conduct a workshop on the golden rule.
4. Application to moral education.

[edit] Other external links

• http://www.sterlingharwood.com has about 10 quotes from about 10 different religions on the golden rule
• The Rules of the Game
• The Golden Rule in Religion
• The Golden Rule in World Religions
• Shared belief in the Golden Rule
• Rosicrucians: The Golden Rule
• A short essay on the Golden Rule
• The Golden Rule, Ethic of Reciprocity, and the Wiccan Rede