Red Deer

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This article is about the species of deer. For the Canadian city, see Red Deer, Alberta. For other uses, see Red Deer (disambiguation).

iCervus elaphus
Conservation status
Least concern (LR/lc)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Artiodactyla Suborder: Ruminantia Family: Cervidae Genus: Cervus Species: C. elaphus
Binomial name
Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758

Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) is one of the largest species of deer in the world, after Alces alces (the moose or, in Europe, elk) and Cervus canadensis (the North American elk or wapiti). The species discussed here is the European Red Deer that inhabits most of Europe and Asia Minor as well as the Atlas Mountains region of northwestern Africa, being the only species of deer to inhabit Africa. Red Deer have been introduced to other areas including New Zealand and Argentina. In many parts of the world the meat from Red Deer is widely used as a food source.

Red Deer are ruminants which are characterized by an even number of toes, and a four-chambered stomach. Recent DNA evidence indicates that the European Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), Central Asian Red Deer (Cervus Affinis), and East Asian Red Deer/Wapiti or American Elk (Cervus canadensis) are three different species. The ancestor of all Red Deer probably originated in Central Asia and probably resembled Sika Deer.^[1]

Although at one time Red Deer were rare in some areas, they were never close to extinction. Reintroduction and conservation efforts, especially in the United Kingdom, have resulted in an increase of Red Deer populations, while other areas such as north Africa, continue to show a population decline.

[edit] Appearance

The Red Deer is a large ungulate (hoofed animal) and is a ruminant, eating their food in two stages and having an even number of toes on each hoof, similar to camels, goats and cattle. There are subtle differences in appearance between the various subspecies of Red Deer primarily in size and antlers with the smallest being the Corsican red deer found on the islands of Corsica and Sardinia and the largest being the East European Red Deer (or maral) of Asia Minor and the Caucasus Region to the west of the Caspian Sea. The deer of Central and Western Europe vary greatly in size with some of the largest deer found in the Carpathian Mountains in Central Europe.^[1] West European Red Deer historically, grew to large size given ample food supply (including peoples' crops), and descendants of introduced populations living in New Zealand and Argentina have grown quite large in size and antlers. Please note that the large size is applied to male deer only. Female Red Deer are much smaller.

Generally, the average male (stag) Red Deer of Europe is 1.2 meters (4 ft) tall and weighs 295 kilograms (650 lbs). European Red Deer tend to reddish in color and there is a great size difference between the males and females as discussed. Males tend to have stronger and thicker neck muscles and the males of many subspecies also grow a "mane" of hair around their necks during the fall. This "mane" is noticeable, particularly in male deer of the British Isles and Norway. Most female red deer have no "manes" around their necks. The European Red Deer is adapted to a woodland environment.^[2] All Red Deer subspecies are between 2.1 and 2.4 meters (7 to 8 ft) in length from nose to tail.

Only the stags have antlers which start growing in the spring and are shed each year, usually at the end of winter. Antlers are made of bone which can grow at a rate of 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) a day and a soft covering known as velvet helps to protect newly forming antlers in the spring. European red deer antlers are more distinctive in being rather straight and rugose beams with the fourth and fifth tines forming a "crown" or "cup" in larger males. Any tines in excess of the fourth and fifth tine will grow radially from the "cup". "Cups" are generally absent in the antlers of smaller red deer such as Corsican Red Deer. West European Red Deer antlers feature bez (second) tines that are either absent or smaller than the brow tine. However, bez tines occur frequently in Norwegian Red Deer. Antlers of East European red deer carry large bez (second) tines and form less-developed "cups" than West European red deer. The antlers are testosterone driven and as their testosterone levels drop in the fall, the velvet is shed and the antlers stop growing.^[3]

During the fall, all Red Deer subspecies grow a thicker coat of hair which helps to insulate them during the winter. Fall is also when some of the male deer will grow their neck manes.^[1] By the time summer begins, the heavy winter coat has been shed, and Red Deer are known to rub against trees and other objects to help remove hair from their bodies. Red Deer and Elk also have different coloration based on the seasons and types of habitats, with grey or lighter coloration prevalent in the winter and a more reddish and darker coat in the summer.^[4] Most European Red Deer wear a reddish-brown summer coat.

[edit] Behavior

Adult Red Deer usually stay in single-sex groups for most of the year. During the mating ritual, called the rut, mature stags compete for the attentions of the hinds and will then try to defend hinds that they attract. Rival stags challenge opponents by bellowing and walking in parallel. This allows combatants to assess each other's antlers, body size and fighting prowess. If neither stag backs down a clash of antlers can occur, and stags sometimes sustain serious injuries.^[5]

Dominant stags follow groups of hinds during the rut, from August into early winter. The stags may have as many as 20 hinds to keep from other less attractive males.^[6] Only mature stags hold harems (groups of hinds) and breeding success peaks at about 8 years of age. Stags 2-4 years old rarely hold harems and spend most of the rut on the periphery of larger harems, as do stags over 11 years old. Young and old stags that do acquire a harem hold it later in the breeding season than those stags in their prime. Harem holding stags rarely feed and lose up to 20% of their body weight. Stags that enter the rut in poor condition are less likely to make it through to the peak conception period.^[5]

Male European Red Deer have a distinctive "roar" during the rut, which is an adaptation to forested environments as oppose to Male Wapiti (or American Elk) which "bugle" during the rut, which is an adaptation to open environments. The male deer "roars" to keep his harem of females together. The females are initially attracted to those males that both roar most often and have the loudest roar call. Males also use the roar call when competing with other males for females during the rut, and along with other forms of posturing and antler fights, is a method used by the males to establish dominance.^[2] Roaring is most common during the early dawn and late evening.

[edit] Breeding, gestation and lifespan

Red Deer hinds nurse their young in a fashion similar to the Rocky Mountain Elk (Cervus Canadensis) depicted in this image.

Red Deer mating patterns usually involve a dozen of more mating attempts before the first successful one. There may be several more matings before the stag will seek out another mate in his harem. Females in their second autumn can produce one and very rarely two offspring per year. The gestation period is 240 and 262 days and the offspring weigh between 15 and 16 kilograms (33 to 35 lbs). After two weeks, calves are able to join the herd and are fully weaned after two months.^[7] Female offspring outnumber male offspring more than two to one and all Red Deer calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and lose their spots by the end of summer. However, as in many species of Old World Deer, some adults do retain a few spots on the backs of their summer coats.^[1] The offspring will remain with their mothers for almost one full year, leaving around the time that the next season offspring are produced.^[2] The gestation period is the same for all subspecies.

Red Deer live up to over 20 years in captivity and average 10 to 13 years in the wild, though some subspecies that have less predation pressure average 15 years.

[edit] DNA studies on Red Deer subspecies

Biologists have until recently stated that Red Deer and Wapiti (or Elk) are the same species forming a continuous distribution throughout temperate Eurasia and North America, based on fertile hybrids that have been produced under captive conditions. Animal behavior is generally different in captivity than in the wild, and the assumption that the same results would happen in the wild as in captivity is not necessarily the best test methodology to determine speciation. Recent DNA studies conducted on hundreds samples from Red Deer and Elk subspecies determined that there are three distinct species of Red Deer and divides them into an Western (European), Central (Himalayan/Tibetan), and Eastern (East Asia, North America) species grouping. The western species is the European Red Deer and includes the deer that are found in Europe, Asia Minor, and North Africa. The central species is the Central Asian Red Deer that inhabits temperate riparian vegetation corridors surrounded by deserts and temperate mountainous environments of the Himalayan Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau of Central Asia. The eastern species is the Wapiti (or Elk) whose range is from Eastern Asia into North America. Altogether, the study concluded that not more than 9 distinct subspecies of Red Deer exist and that the eastern, central, and western groups should be considered to be three separate species.^[8] Both the Central Asian Red Deer and East Asian Red Deer/Wapiti (or Elk) are more closely related in DNA to the Sika Deer than is the European Red Deer. Biologists have not adopted a general consensus that there are three distinct species.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources has identified two subspecies of European Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) as (potentially) endangered.^[9].

[edit] Protection from predators

Male Red Deer retain their antlers for more than half the year and are more gregarious and less likely to group with other males when they have antlers. The antlers provide self defense as does a strong front-leg kicking action which is performed by both sexes when attacked. Once the antlers are shed, stags tend to form bachelor groups which allow them to cooperatively work together. Herds tend to have one or more members watching for potential danger while the remaining members eat and rest.^[2]

After the rut, females form large herds of up to 50 individuals. The newborn calves are kept close to the hinds by a series of vocalizations between the two, and larger nurseries have an ongoing and constant chatter during the daytime hours. When approached by predators, the largest and most robust females may make a stand, using their front legs to kick at their attackers. Guttural grunts and posturing is used with all but the most determined of predators with great effectiveness. Aside from man and domestic dogs, the Wolf was probably the most dangerous predator that most European Red Deer encountered. Occasionally, the Brown bear, grizzly will predate on European Red Deer as well.^[2] Eurasian Lynx and wild boars sometimes prey on the calves. The leopard in Asia Minor (now extinct) probably preyed on East European Red Deer. Both leopards and lions probably onced preyed on Barbary Stags in the Atlas Mountains.

[edit] Distribution and habitat

Cervus genus ancestors of Red Deer first appear in fossil records 12 million years ago during the Pliocene in Eurasia. ^[10] An extinct species, known as the Irish Elk (Megaloceros) was not related to the red deer but to the fallow deer, was the largest member of the deer family known from the fossil record.^[11]

Stag and hinds in Killarney National Park, Co Kerry, Ireland.

Red Deer is one of the largest game animals found in Asia, North Africa and Europe. In Europe, The Red Deer is the largest non-domesticated mammal still existing in some countries such as the United Kingdom and Ireland.^[10] A deer known as the "Barbary Stag" and resembles the West European Red Deer, is the only member of the deer family that is represented in Africa, with population centered in the northwestern region of the continent in the Atlas Mountains.^[5] As of the mid 1990s, Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria were the only African countries known to have Red Deer.^[12]

In New Zealand, and to a much lesser degree in Australia, introduced Red Deer have adapted well, and hunting is extensive. Red Deer populations in Africa, southern Europe and central Asia are generally declining. In Argentina, where the Red Deer has had a potential negative impact on native animal species, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources has labelled the animal as one of the worlds 100 worst invaders.^[13]

[edit] Migration

Red Deer in Europe generally spend their winters in lower altitudes and more wooded terrain. During the summer, they migrate to higher elevations where food supplies are greater for the calving season. Asiatic Red Deer also tend to follow the melting snows to higher altitudes in the spring and return to lower elevations for the winter months.

[edit] Red Deer in folklore

Red Deer are widely depicted in cave art and are found throughout European caves, with some of the artwork dating from as early as 40,000 years ago, during the Upper Paleolithic. Siberian cave art from the Neolithic of 7,000 years ago has abundant depictions of Red Deer, including what can be described as spiritual artwork, indicating the importance of this mammal to the peoples of that region.^[14]

[edit] Red Deer products

Red Deer stags, similar to Elk bulls (Cervus Canadensis) depicted here, shed their heavy winter coats and their antlers are covered in velvet in early stage of growth in the Spring.

Red Deer are held in captivity for a variety of reasons. In some circumstances, hunting interests set aside game farms, where hunters can pay a fee and be essentially guaranteed a chance to shoot an elk, as they are fenced in and have less opportunity to escape. Elk meat is not generally harvested for human consumption on a large scale, though specialty restaurants seasonally offer elk meat which is widely considered to be both flavorful and nutritious. Elk is higher in protein and lower in fat than either beef or chicken.^[15] In some countries in central Asia, elk is still hunted as a primary source of meat.

The red deer can produce 22 to 25 pounds (10 to 11 kg) of antler velvet annually and on ranches in New Zealand, this velvet is collected and sold to markets in east Asia, where it is used for holistic medicines, with South Korea being the primary consumer. The antlers themselves are also believed by east Asians to have medicinal purposes and is often ground up and used in small quantities. The antlers are also highly sought after worldwide for decorative purposes and have been used for artwork, furniture and other novelty items.

[edit] See also

• Elk (Cervus canadensis) - East Asian/North American Wapiti
• Central Asian Red Deer (Cervus Affinis) - Himalayan/Tibetan Red Deer
• East European Red Deer - a subspecies of Red Deer
• Sika Deer
• Thorold's Deer

[edit] External links

• Red deer in New Zealand
• Deer Commission for Scotland

[edit] References cited

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Cervus elaphus