Alfabeto árabe

Na Galipedia, a wikipedia en galego.

Historia do alfabeto
Idade do Bronce Medio ss –XIX - -XV Protocananeo s. –XIV. Ugarítico s. –XIII. Fenicio s. –XI. Samaritano s. –VI. Arameo s. –IX. Brāhmī s. –VI. Hebreo s. –III. Siríaco s. –II. Avéstico s. -III. Árabe s. IV. Grego s. –VIII. Itálico antigo s. –VIII. Latino s. –VII. umbro s. -VI osco s. -V falisco s. -V alf. alpinos s. -III Rúnico s. II. Copto s. I. Gótico s. IV. Armenio 405. Glagolítico 862. Cirílico s. X. Ibérico s. –III. Celtibérico s. –II. Sudarábico s. –IX. Ge'ez ss. III-IV.
Meroítico s. –III.
Xenealoxía completa

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O alfabeto árabe é a principal escritura empregada para escribir no idioma árabe. É o alfabeto empregado no Corán, o libro sagrado do Islam. A influencia do alfabeto aumentou ca expansión do islam e foi, e todavía é, espregado para escribir noutras linguas sen ningunha raíz lingüística común co árabe, coma o Persa e o Urdu. Xeralmente é preciso engadir ou modificar certas letras para adaptar este alfabeto á fonoloxía das linguas de destino.

Índice 1 Estrutura do alfabeto árabe 2 Presentación do alfabeto 2.1 Letras Principais 2.2 Outras letras 2.2.1 Notas 2.2.1.1 Escribindo o hamza 2.2.1.2 Ligaduras 2.3 Diacríticos 2.3.1 Vogais 2.3.2 Signos silábicos e outros 2.3.2.1 Shadda 2.3.2.2 Sukūn 3 Arabic numerals 4 History 5 Arabic alphabets of other languages 6 Computers and the Arabic alphabet 7 Ver tamén 8 External links

[editar] Estrutura do alfabeto árabe

O alfabeto árabe está composto por 28 letras básicas e escríbese de dereita a esquerda. Non hai diferenza entre as letras escritas e as impresas e non existe diferenciación entre letras minúsculas e maiúsculas. A maioría das letras únense coa seguinte, mesmo cando son impresas, e a súa apariencia cambia dependendo de se son precedidas ou seguidas por outras letras ou se están soas. O alfabeto árabe é un abjad impuro (as vogais curtas non se escriben pero as longas si) así que o lector debe coñecer o idioma para poder repor as vogais. Nembargantes, nalgunhas edicións do Corán ou nalgúns traballos didácticos emprégase unha notación con marcas diacríticas para sinalar a vocalización. Ademais, en textos vocalizados, hai unha serie doutros caracteres diacríticos dos cales o máis moderno é unha indicación da omisión das vogais (sukūn) e da prolongación das consoantes (šadda).

[editar] Presentación do alfabeto

O alfabeto árabe pode transliterarse e transcribirse de varias maneiras. O método preferido neste artigo será o DIN-31635. Alternativas pertencentes a outros estandares están indicados despois das barras oblícuas.

A liña horizontal diacrítica sobre as vocais longas é a miúdo reemprazada por un circunflexo porque é máis sinxelo de escribir na maioría dos teclados.

Unha transliteración do árabe debe permitir a reconstrución das letras árabes orixinais de maneira que mostre os caracteres que non se pronuncian ou que se pronuncian coma outros. Unha transcripción fonética indica só a pronunciación. A transcripción fonética segue as convencións do Alfabeto Fonético Internacional: para máis detalles concernintes á pronunciación do árabe consultalo artigo Pronunciación no Árabe.

SATTS, o Standard Arabic Technical Transliteration System (Sistema Técnico Estandard de Transliteración do Árabe), é un sistema militar estandard estadounidense de transliteración do alfabeto árabe ó alfabeto latino.

[editar] Letras Principais

Se Está Soa	Posición Inicial	Posición intermedia	Posición Final	Nome	Transliteración	Pronunciación
ﺀ	أ ؤ إ ئ ٵ ٶ ٸ ځ, etc.			hamza	ʾ / ’	[ʔ]
ﺍ	—		ﺎ	ʾalif	ā / â	[aː]
ﺏ	ﺑ	ﺒ	ﺐ	bāʾ	b	[b]
ﺕ	ﺗ	ﺘ	ﺖ	tāʾ	t	[t]
ﺙ	ﺛ	ﺜ	ﺚ	ṯāʾ	ṯ / th	[θ]
ﺝ	ﺟ	ﺠ	ﺞ	ǧīm	ǧ / j / dj	[ʤ]
ﺡ	ﺣ	ﺤ	ﺢ	ḥāʾ	ḥ	[ħ]
ﺥ	ﺧ	ﺨ	ﺦ	ḫāʾ	ḫ / ẖ / kh	[x]
ﺩ	—		ﺪ	dāl	d	[d]
ﺫ	—		ﺬ	ḏāl	ḏ / dh	[ð]
ﺭ	—		ﺮ	rāʾ	r	[r]
ﺯ	—		ﺰ	zāy	z	[z]
ﺱ	ﺳ	ﺴ	ﺲ	sīn	s	[s]
ﺵ	ﺷ	ﺸ	ﺶ	šīn	š / sh	[ʃ]
ﺹ	ﺻ	ﺼ	ﺺ	ṣād	ṣ	[sˁ]
ﺽ	ﺿ	ﻀ	ﺾ	ḍād	ḍ	[dˁ], [ðˤ]
ﻁ	ﻃ	ﻄ	ﻂ	ṭāʾ	ṭ	[tˁ]
ﻅ	ﻇ	ﻈ	ﻆ	zāʾ	ẓ	[zˁ], [ðˁ]
ﻉ	ﻋ	ﻌ	ﻊ	ʿayn	ʿ / ‘	[ʔˤ]
ﻍ	ﻏ	ﻐ	ﻎ	ġayn	ġ / gh	[ɣ]
ﻑ	ﻓ	ﻔ	ﻒ	fāʾ	f	[f]
ﻕ	ﻗ	ﻘ	ﻖ	qāf	q / ḳ	[q]
ﻙ	ﻛ	ﻜ	ﻚ	kāf	k	[k]
ﻝ	ﻟ	ﻠ	ﻞ	lām	l	[l]
ﻡ	ﻣ	ﻤ	ﻢ	mīm	m	[m]
ﻥ	ﻧ	ﻨ	ﻦ	nūn	n	[n]
ﻩ	ﻫ	ﻬ	ﻪ	hāʾ	h	[h]
ﻭ	—		ﻮ	wāw	w	[w]
ﻱ	ﻳ	ﻴ	ﻲ	yāʾ	y	[j]

As letras que carecen dunha version inicial ou media nunca se unen as seguintes letras. Coma por exemplo ﺀ hamza.

[editar] Outras letras

Se Está Soa	Posición Inicial	Posición Media	Posición Final	Nome	Transliteración	Pronunciación
ﺁ	—		ﺂ	ʾalif madda	ʾā	[ʔaː]
ﺓ	—		ﺔ	tāʾ marbūṭa	h or t / Ø / h / ẗ	[a], [at]
ﻯ	—		ﻰ	ʾalif maqṣūra	ā / ỳ	[aː]
ﻻ	—		ﻼ	lām ʾalif	lā	[laː]

[editar] Notas

A letra ʾalif maqṣūra, escrita comunmente co Unicode 0x0649 (ى) do árabe, é algunhas veces reemprazada, en Farsi/Persa ou Urdu, polo Unicode 0x06CC (ی), chamada "Farsi Yeh" dado que é máis apropiada para a pronunciación nesas linguas. Os glifos son idénticos nas formas única e final ( ﻯ ﻰ ), pero non nas formas inicial e media, nas que a Farsi Yeh gaña dous pontos debaixo ( ﯾ ﯿ ) mentras que a ʾalif maqṣūra non os ten.

[editar] Escribindo o hamza

Inicialmente, a letra ʾalif indicaba unha glotal oclusiva, ou stop glotal, transcrito coma [ʔ], confirmando unha orixe común co Fenicio. Actualmente emprégase da mesma maneira que en outras abjads, con yāʾ e wāw, coma mater lectionis, é dicir, unha consoante que sustitúe a unha vocal longa. Ademáis, a traverso do paso do tempo o seu valor fonético foi escuro, xa que, ʾalif serve principalmente para reemprazar fonemas ou funcionar coma soporte gráfico para certos diacríticos.

Actualmente, o alfabeto árabe emprega o hamza principalmente para indicar un stop glotal, que pode aparecer en calquera parte dunha palabra. Nembargantes, esta letra non funciona coma as outras: pode ser escrita soa ou cun apoio, nese caso convértese nun diacrítico:

• Soa : ء
• Cun apoio : إ, أ (sobre ou baixo un ʾalif), ؤ (sobre un wāw), ئ (sobre un yāʾ 'sen pontos ou yāʾ hamza).

Os detalles sobre coma escriber o hamza son discutidos abaixo, tralos datos sobre as vocais e os sinais de división silabial, porque as súas funcións están relacionadas.

[editar] Ligaduras

A única ligadura obrigatoria é lām+'alif. tódalas outras ligaduras (yaa - meem, etc) son opcionais.

Algunhas fontes inclúen un glifo (Sall-allahu alayhi wasallam):

e un glifo da palabra Allah:

O primeiro emprégase tras tódalas mencións ó nome de Sagrado profeta (que Allah o bendiga e lle conceda paz). O último é un work-around debido á incompetencia da maioría dos procesadores de textos, que son incapaces de mostrar o Sagrado Nome correctamente debido ó seu sistema de mostralos símbolos vocais. Compare o seguinte texto, que depende do seu navegador e as fontes que taña instaladas:

[editar] Diacríticos

[editar] Vogais

Xeneralmente, as vogais curtas non se escriben en árabe, non obstante hai excepcións como poden ser os textos sagrados (como o Corán) ou didácticos, que son coñecidos como textos vogalizados.

As vogais curtas deben escribirse con diacríticos situados enriba ou debaixo da consoante que as precede na sílaba. (Tódalas vogais en árabe, sexan curtas ou longas, seguen a unha consoante. Contrariamente ó que parece sempre hai unha consoante ó inicio de nomes coma Alí — en árabe ʾAlī — ou nunha palabra coma ʾalif.)

O a longo que segue a unha consoante distinta de hamzah escríbese cun signo curto-a na consoante máis un alif depois del (ʾalif).

O i longo ten como signo o i curto máis o yaa yāʾ, e o u longo ten como signo o u curto máis o waaw, polo tanto aā = ā, iy = ī and uw = ū);

O a longo seguido do son hamzah pode ser representado por un alif-madda ou por un hamzah flotante seguido por un alif.

Nos textos non vogalizados (aqueles nos que as vogais curtas non se escriben), as vogais longas son representadas pola consoante en cuestión (alif, yaa, waaw). As vogais longas escritas no medio dunha verba trátanse coma consoantes ¿tomando? sukūn (ver abaixo) nun texto que teña moitos diacríticos.

Long vowels written in the middle of a word are treated like consonants taking sukūn (see below) in a text that has full diacritics.

Para aclaralo, as vogais se situarán enriba ou debaixo da letra د dāl polo que cómpre le-los resultados [da], [di], [du], etc. Teña en conta que د dāl é unha das seis letras que non se unen pola esquerda e está usada aquí coma exemplo. Outras letras si que se unen a ʾalif, wāw' e yāʾ.

Vogais simples	Nome	Trans.	Valor
دَ	fatḥa	a	[a]
دِ	kasra	i	[i]
دُ	ḍamma	u	[u]
دَ‌ا	fatḥa ʾalif	ā	[aː]
دَ‌ى	fatḥa ʾalif maqṣūra	ā / aỳ	[aː]
دِ‌ي	kasra yāʾ	ī / iy	[iː]
دُ‌و	ḍamma wāw	ū / uw	[uː]

letras tanwiin:
ً, ٍ, ٌ	empregadas para produci-lo final /an/, /in/, and /un/ respectivamente. ً emprégase a cotío en combinación con ا ‎( اً ).

[editar] Signos silábicos e outros

[editar] Shadda

ّ shadda marca a xeminación dunha consoante; kasra (ver abaixo) móvese, cando está presente, entre o shadda e a consoante xeminada.

[editar] Sukūn

Unha sílaba árabe pode ser aberta (rematar nunha vogal) ou pechada (se remata nunha consoante).

• aberta: C[onsoante]V[ogal];
• pechada: CVC(C).

When the syllable is closed, we can indicate that the consonant that closes it does not carry a vowel by marking it with a sign called sukūn, which takes the form "°", to remove any ambiguity, especially when the text is not vocalised: it's necessary to remember that a standard text is only composed of series of consonants; thus, the word qalb, "heart", is written qlb. Sukūn allows us to know where not to place a vowel: qlb could, in effect, be read /qVlVbV/, but written with a sukūn over the l and the b, it can only be interpreted as the form /qVlb/ (as for knowing which vowel to use, the word has to be memorised); we write this قلْبْ (without ligature: ق‌لْ‌بْ).

You might think that in a vocalised text sukūn is not necessary, because the lack of vowel after a consonant might be signalled by simply not writing any mark above it, so قِلْبْ would be redundant. That is not so because such a convention ("lack of any vowel mark means lack of vowel sound") does not exist: k + u + t + b may indeed be read "kutib". Such a rule would make sense if everybody writing a vowel mark were forced to write all vowel marks in the same word, and that is not the case. In fact, you may write as many or as few of the vowel marks as you like.

In the Quran, however, all vowel marks must be written: there, sukuun over a letter (other than the alif indicating long "a") indicates that it is pronounced but not followed by a short vowel, while the lack of any sign over a letter (other than alif) indicates that the consonant is not pronounced.

Outside of the qur'aan, putting a sukuun above a yaa' which indicates long ee, or above a waaw which stands for long oo, is extremely rare, to the point that yaa with sukuun will be unambiguously read as the diphthong ai (as in Englis "eye") and waaw with sukuun will be read au (as in English "cow").

So, the word zauǧ, "husband", can be written simply zwǧ : زوج (which might be also read "zooj" if such a word existed); or with sukūn  زوْجْ which is unambiguously "zowj"; or with sukūn and vowels: زَوْج.

The letters mwsyqā (موسيقى with a ʾalif maqṣūra at the end of the word) will be read most naturally as the word "mooseekaa" ("music"). If you were to write sukuuns above the waaw, yaa and alif, you'd get موْسيْقىْ, which looks like "mowsaykay". (note that an ʾalif maqṣūra is an alif and never takes sukūn, so when you put a sukuun above it it loks like a yaa deprived of its two dots below).

You cannot place a sukuun on the final letter j of "zawj" even if you don't pronounce a vowel there, because fully vocalised texts are always written as if the ighraab vowels were in fact pronounced, and this word can never have a sukuun as an ighraab. Let's take the sentence "ahmad zawj sharr", meaning "Ahmed is a bad husband". The theoretical pronunciation with the ighraab vowels is "ahmadu zaujun sharr". Interestingly, regardless of the fact that most people say "ahmad zauj sharr", you cannot write the mark for sukuun over that j; you either leave it marless, or use the mark for "un". By the same token, you can leave the final r of this sentence either completely unmarked or topped with a shadda plus "un", but a sukuun never belngs there, regardless of the fact that the only correct pronunciation of "sharrun" at the end of an utterence is "shar".

[editar] Arabic numerals

There are two kinds of numerals used in Arabic writing; standard Arabic numerals, and "EastArab" numerals, used in Arab writing in Iran, Pakistan and India. In Arabic, these numbers are referred to as "Indian numbers" (أرقام هندية). In most of present-day North Africa, the usual Western numerals are used; in medieval times, a slightly different set (dos cais, a través da Italia os números arábicos usados no Occidente derivan) was used.

Standard numerals ٠ 0 ١ 1 ٢ 2 ٣ 3 ٤ 4 ٥ 5 ٦ 6 ٧ 7 ٨ 8 ٩ 9

EastArab numerals ۰ 0 ۱ 1 ۲ 2 ۳ 3 ۴ 4 ۵ 5 ۶ 6 ۷ 7 ۸ 8 ۹ 9

[editar] History

The Arabic alphabet can be traced back to the alphabet used to write the Nabataean dialect of Aramaico, itself descended from Phoenician (which, among others, gave rise to the Greek alphabet and, thence, to Latin letters, etc.). The first known text in the Arabic alphabet is a late fourth-century inscription from Jabal Ramm (50 km east of Aqaba), but the first dated one is a trilingual inscription at Zebed in Siria from 512. However, the epigraphic record is extremely sparse, with only five certainly pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions surviving (though some others may be pre-Islamic.) Later, dots were added above and below the letters to differentiate them (the Aramaic model had fewer phonemes than the Arabic, and some originally distinct Aramaic letters had become indistinguishable in shape, so in the early writings 15 distinct letter-shapes had to do duty for 28 sounds!) The first surviving document that definitely uses these dots is also the first surviving Arabic papyrus (PERF 558), dated April 643, although they did not become obligatory until much later.

Yet later, vowel signs and hamzas were added, beginning sometime in the last half of the sixth century, roughly contemporaneous with the first invention of Syriac and Hebrew vocalization. Initially, this was done by a system of red dots, said to have been commissioned by an Umayyad gobernor of Iraq, Hajjaj ibn Yusuf: a dot above = a, a dot below = i, a dot on the line = u, and doubled dots gove tanwin. However, this was cumbersome and eaily confusable with the letter-distinguishing dots, so about 100 years later, the modern system was adopted. The system was finalized around 786 by al-Farahidi.

[editar] Arabic alphabets of other languages

Arabic script is not used solely for writing Arabic, but for a variety of languages. In each language it is used for, it has been modified to fit the language's sound system. There are phonemes not found in Arabic, but found in, for instance, Persian and Malay and Urdu - especially since those three languages are not related to Arabic. For example, the Arabic language lacks a "P" sounding letter, so many languages add their own "P" in the script, though the symbol used may differ between languages. These modifications tend to fall into groups; so all the Indian and Turkic languages written in Arabic tend to use the Persian modified letters, whereas West African languages tend to imitate those of Ajami, and Indonesian ones those of Jawi. The script in which the Persian modified letters are used, is called Perso-Arabic script by the scholars.

The Arabic alphabet is currently used for:

• Urdu, Kashmiri, Sindhi, and Baluchi in Pakistan and India
• Persian and Azerí in Iran (though Azerí is written in Latin and Cyrillic scripts in Azerbaijan)
• Pashto, and Uzbek in Afghanistan
• Malay, known as Jawi, in Brunei and formerly in Malaysia and Indonesia
• Punjabi in Pakistan, where it is known as Shahmukhi
• Kurdish and Turkmen in Northern Iraq, while in Turkey Roman script is used for Kurdish.
• Uyghur and Kazakh in northwest China (Xinjiang)
• Wolof (at zaouias), known as Wolofal
• Hausa for many purposes, especially religious (known as Ajami)
• Comorense (Comorense) idioma das illas Comores, podese usar tamén o Alfabeto latino (ningunha das dúas escritas e oficial)

In the past, it has also been used to represent other languages:

• Fulani, known as Ajami
• Sanskrit has also been written in Arabic script, though it is more well known as using the Devanagari script - the same script used for writing the Hindi language
• Somali
• Swahili
• Tatar (iske imlâ) before 1928 (changed to Latin), reformed in 1880-s, 1918 (deletion of some letters)
• All the Muslim peoples of the USSR between 1918-1928 (many also earlier), including Bashkir, Chechen, Kazakh, etc. After 1928 their script became Latin, then later Cyrillic.
• Turkish in the Ottoman Empire was written in Arabic script until Mustafa Kemal Atatürk declared the change to Roman script in 1928. This form of Turkish is now known as Ottoman Turkish and is held by many to be a different language, due to its much higher percentage of Persian and Arabic loanwords.
• Turkmen in Turkmenistan
• Chaghatai across Central Asia
• Songhay in West Africa, particularly in Timbuktu.
• Berber in North Africa, particularly Tachelhit in Morocco.
• Nubian
• Afrikaans (among the "Cape Malays")
• Bosnian
• Belarusian (among ethnic Tatars)
• Mozarabic, when the Moors ruled Spain (and later Aragonese, Portuguese, and Spanish proper; see aljamiado)
• Chinese and Dungan, among the Chinese Hui Muslims[1]

[editar] Computers and the Arabic alphabet

The Arabic alphabet can be encoded using several character sets, including ISO-8859-6 and Unicode, thanks to the "Arabic segment": entries U+0600 to U+06FF. However, these two sets do not indicate the form each character should take in context. It is left to the rendering engine to select the proper glyph to display for each character.

When one wants to encode a particular written form of a character, there are extra code points provided in Unicode which can be used to express the exact written form desired. The Arabic presentation forms A (U+FB50 to U+FDFF) and Arabic presentation forms B (U+FE70 to U+FEFF) contain most of the characters with contextual variation as well as the extended characters appropriate for other languages. These effects are better achieved in Unicode by using the zero width joiner and non-joiner, as these presentation forms are deprecated in Unicode, and should generally only be used within the internals of text-rendering software, when using Unicode as an intermediate form for conversion between character encodings, or for backwards compatibility with implementations that rely on the hard-coding of glyph forms.

Finally, the Unicode encoding of Arabic is in logical order, that is, the characters are entered, and stored in computer memory, in the order that they are written and pronounced without worrying about the direction in which they will be displayed on paper or on the screen. Again, it is left to the rendering engine to present the characters in the correct direction, using Unicode's bi-directional text features. In this regard, if the Arabic words on this page are written left to right, it is an indication that the Unicode rendering engine used to display them is out-of-date. For more information about encoding Arabic, consult the Unicode manual available at http://www.unicode.org/

[editar] Ver tamén

• Diacríticos do alfabeto árabe;
• Jawi
• Arabic numerals
• Unicode characters for the Arabic alphabet
• Arabic calligraphy, considered an art form in its own right.

[editar] External links

• Arab writing and calligraphy
• Article about Arabic alphabet
• Arabic alphabet and calligraphy
• aralpha (freeware) to learn the characters

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This article contains major sections of text from the very detailed article Arabic alphabet, from the French Wikipedia, which has been partially translated into English. Further translation of that page, and its incorporation into the text here, are welcomed.