技術

维基百科，自由的百科全书

不論何種文化，技術都是個難懂的詞。它可以指物質，如機器、硬體或器皿，但它也可以包含更廣的架構，如系統、組織方法和技巧。它是知識進化的主體，由社會形塑或形塑社會。如電腦等新技術的增生使人們相信技術是社會進化的決定性力量，換句話說，它是趨動改變的自發性動力。最好放棄化約主義的觀點，而將技術視為包含了社會、政治、歷史及經濟因素等一起作用而造成改變之多面向社會網絡的一組成元素。

目录 1 科學、工程與技術 1.1 用法 2 技術的本質 2.1 技術特性 2.2 技術教育 2.3 知識產權 3 技術史 3.1 史前時代 3.2 前現代的技術發展 4 技術的現在類型 4.1 家庭和農田 4.2 電和電子學 4.3 能量和其他應用科學 4.4 軍事和武器 4.5 運輸 4.6 美術和語言 4.7 Architecture, construction, and engineering 4.8 Medicine and health 5 Technological evaluation 5.1 Technicism 5.2 Optimism, pessimism and appropriate technology 5.2.1 Pessimism 5.2.2 Optimism 5.2.3 Appropriate technology 5.3 Theories and concepts in technology 6 另見 6.1 列表 7 參考 8 Bibliography 9 外部連結

[编辑] 科學、工程與技術

科學、工程與技術的分別並不總是不明確。一般來講，工程放較多的焦點在實際經驗上，科學放較多在理論和純研究上，而技術則介於兩者之間。

大體而言，科學是對自然合理地研究或學習，焦點在於發現(現象)世界內元素間的永恆關係(原理)。它通常利用合乎規則的技術，即一系統建立好的程序規則，如科學方法。

工程為對科學及技術原理合理的使用，以達到基於經驗上的計畫結果。

例如，科學可能會學習電子在導體內的流動。此一知識即可能會被工程師拿來創造工具或設備，如半導體、電腦及其他類型的先進技術。

[编辑] 用法

科學/科學家被當做是一普遍的稱號，並指和新產品和科學項目有關的主題和研究員，如「科學家發明了這個」(不是「工程師發明了這個」)，或「感謝科學做成了這」(不是「感謝技術做成了這」)。

工程/工程師則一般是指維持科學項目的事，或改善原本科學產品的人，如「工程師操作了這一機器」(不是「科學家操作了這一機器」)。

技術則比較含糊，但通常是指一真實物件，和能被使用及值得被使用的事物。技術通常不涉及如數學定理等發現，人們一般不會這樣使用，如「我喜歡使用這個新技術」。

[编辑] 技術的本質

觀其本質，技術的存在取決於人們的需要，並滿足其需要。早期人類創造及使用技術是為了解決其基本需求。而現在的技術則是為了滿足人們更廣泛的需求和慾望，並需要一巨大的社會結構來支撐它。

在今日，此一現象的一重要例子為電話。當電話在發展的過程中，社會變得有想要更可攜設備的慾望。最後，此一慾望產生了對新產品的需求，導致了手機的發明。現在，幾乎每個人都可以隨時通話，不論其身在何處。此一發明改變了人們之間的關係：有些人現今被負更多說明義務及更被依賴，且更少理由不保持連繫。技術的複雜性創造了一個技術與社會間的相互影響。

[编辑] 技術特性

當技術的使用在現代社會無所不在，一套共同的特性可以用來現代技術上。許多的作者，如McGinn (1991)和Winston (2003)列了下列一些關鍵的特性：

複雜度，指大多現今的工具都很難以了解的特性(即需要一連串對製造或使用的事先訓練)。一些較相對簡單使用，但卻相對困難去理解其來源和製造方法，如餐刀、棒球及高加工食品等。另外也有很難使用且很難理解的，如拖拉機、電視、電腦等。

依賴性，指現今工具多依賴著其他的現代工具，而其他的現代工具又依賴著另外的其他現代工具的事實，不論是在製造、使用上面。例如，車子便有一巨大且複雜的製造及維護工業持撐著。而使用也需要有一複雜的公路、街道、高速公路、加油站、保養廠和廢棄物收集等設備。

多樣性，指相同工具的不同類型和變異。想像今日所存在的眾多湯匙和剪刀。即使是更複雜的工具也通常有許多的形狀和樣式，如建築起重機或車子。

規模，指現代技術的普及。簡單地說，技術似乎在每一個角落。它支配了現代的生活。另外，規模亦指許多現代技術計畫的範圍，如手機網絡、網際網路、飛機航行、通訊衛星及其對地球上人們的影響。

[编辑] 技術教育

基於當今技術的複雜性，技術的純實作將需要龐大理解，由許多年的實驗、成功、失敗與一般經驗之中。因此，大量的知識需要由專家負責儲存並傳給下一代。其訓練和教育以正式和非正式教育機構、學校、學院和大學等來進行。試想進入如醫學、工程和建築等職業所需要的龐大知識。

[编辑] 知識產權

當被用於商業行為時，技術可以確保公司和其他公司的競爭力。但達到、發明或使用技術的投資成本，稱為知識產權，是非常高的。因此，許多社會(如美國、歐洲、台灣)都會對此一此一投資給予政府的保護，經由給予專利，一排他性的權利。此一保護能使公司投資在技術上的成本能夠回收，因此可以鼓勵創新。但亦有另一觀點指出，專利的過度保護，反而會使得創新遭到阻礙。

[编辑] 技術史

主条目：技術史

[编辑] 史前時代

技術的歷史和人類一樣久遠。一些主要的工具類型幾乎在每一次舊人類的考古發現中都會被找到，直至能人的時代。不過，其他動物也被發覺可以學習使用及精製工具，所以將人類視為唯一會使用及製作工具的動物是不正確的。技術的歷史依順著由簡單的工具及能源(多為人力)至複雜的高技術工具及能源的過程發展。

最早的技術會單純地轉變現有的天然資源(如石頭、樹木和其他草木、骨頭和其他動物副產品)成簡單的工具。經由如刻、鑿、刮、繞及烤等簡單的方式，將原料轉變為有用的製品。人類學家發現了許多早期人類由天然資源所製造出的住所和工具。此一時期稱為石器時代。

鳥是另一種時常會以許多材料建立精緻的窩和簡單工具的動物。通常，它們並不被認為在實作一技術技藝，主要是因為此行為大多來自於本能。但還是有一些偶發性文化轉移的證據，尤其在非人類靈長類之間。已有許多證據證明在除了人類的動物之間，亦有些簡單的技術。

火的使用而然後掌握(約五十萬至一百萬年前(HistoryWorld, 2006))是人類技術演進的轉捩點，提供了一具有許多深遠用途的簡單能源。或許第一次使用火來供加熱是在食物的準備上。其使得植物及動物等食物來源大大地增加，因為它大大地降低了食物的腐敗速度。

火再來擴展到了天然資料的加工上，且允許利用需用火加工的天然資料。(現今找到最古老的拋射武器為用火燒固的木製長矛，約在二十五萬年前)木材和木炭是第一種被使用來能源的物質。木材、黏土和石頭(如石灰岩)是最早用火來塑形和加工的物質，用來製造如武器、陶器、磚和水泥等加工品。持續地改善，創造出來火爐和風箱，及精煉與鍛造自然金屬的能力。金、銅、銀和鉛為最早可被精煉出的幾種金屬。勝過石、骨及木製工具之銅製工具的優點很快地展現在早期人類身上，而自然銅的使用則大約在新石器時代初期(約西元前八千年)。在自然界裡並不存在很大量的自然銅，但銅礦則是很普遍的，且有些可以用木材或木炭很容易地製造出來。

最後，金屬的製作導致了如青銅和黃銅等合金的發明(約在西元前四千年，稱為青銅時代)。鋼等鐵合金的第一次使用則在西元前一千四百年(鐵器時代)。

其間，人類學會到控制其他類型的能量。所知最早風力的使用為帆船。一裝有帆的書於西元前三千兩百年的埃及壁畫中被發現。從史前時代開始，埃及人大約就在使用「尼羅河的力量」一年一次的洪河來灌溉他們的土地，並漸漸學會經由計畫性地建造灌溉渠道和水池來管理田地。類似地，美索不達米亞的早期人民，蘇美人會來了使用底格里斯河和幼發拉底河來做為相同的用途。但更多風力和水力(甚至人力)的使用則需要再另一次的發明。

[编辑] 前現代的技術發展

工具包含有單純機械(如槓桿、螺絲和滑輪)和較複雜的機械(如時鐘、發動機、發電機、電動機、電腦、收音機和太空站等)。

通訊的重大進展為紙及活字印刷術的發明。

一般認為蔡倫是紙的發明者，其所發明的紙為現今所認為的紙，相對於由紙莎草的莖織成的莎草紙。他於西元105年描述了現在的造紙方法。大部份早期的原料都是很少見且昂貴的。紙在數個世紀之間都還是個奢侈品，直到十九世紀蒸氣造紙機的發明，它可以由紙漿中取出纖維來造紙。一般利用如雲杉木等的針葉樹材。

活字印刷術為一能將同一文字印在多份紙上的印刷裝備。允許單一文字被排列成文字的活字排版於西元1041年至1048年之間由中國的畢昇所發明。將活字印刷使用於大量生產的印刷業的第一人為德國金匠，最後成為印刷業者的約翰內斯·古騰堡，他於西元1440年引入活字印刷，並使其普及起來。

工業革命為於18世紀晚期及19世紀初期的一在技術、社會、經濟及文化上的重大改變。它起源於英國，並擴散至全世界。於此期間，基於手工的經濟被機械的產業及製造所替代。它開始於紡織產業的機械化和製鐵技術的發展，以及因運河引進、道路改善及鐵路運輸等而產生的貿易擴張。蒸汽機(燃料主要為煤)的引進及動力機械(主要在紡織製造上)更鞏固了生產量戲劇性的增加。(Meier and Rauch, 2000) 19世紀前兩個年代的全金屬機床發展促進了其他產業更多的生產機械。

當工具的複雜度增加時，支撐其所需的知識種類也增加了。複雜的當代機械需要一整套有關知識的技術手冊，且還在不斷地增加及改良，其設計者、建立者、維修者和使用者常需要數年一般和特定的訓練來熟練它。甚至，工具會太過複雜，以致需要如工程、醫學和電腦科學等基礎知識的工具、程序及練習來支撐它們。複雜的製造及建築技術及組織被需要以用來建立及維持它們。整個產業都被用來支撐與發展一下代更複雜的工具。

[编辑] 技術的現在類型

現今，技術是很普及的。不論到如何地方，於環境上或是於社會裡，想要逃脫技術或其影響是不可能的。要抓到當代技術的精華，下列的分類被提了出來：

• Home and farm, including Domestic Science, Agriculture, Animal husbandry, Veterinary medicine, and Recreation, including Athletics;
• Electricity and Electronics;
• Applied science, including Energy and Environmental Science;
• Military;
• Transportation;
• The Arts and Language, including the Information Sciences and Communication;
• Architecture, Construction, and Engineering;
• Medicine and Health, including Bioengineering.

[编辑] 家庭和農田

Agriculture

In the Western world, the use of gene manipulation, better management of soil nutrients, and improved weed control have greatly increased yields per unit area. At the same time, the use of mechanization has decreased labour requirements. The developing world generally produces lower yields, having less access to the latest technology.

Modern agriculture depends heavily on engineering and technology and on the biological and physical sciences. Irrigation, drainage, conservation and sanitary engineering, each of which is important in successful farming, are some of the fields requiring the specialized knowledge of agricultural engineers.

Domestic technology

Domestic technology is the incorporation of applied science into the home. On one level, there are domestic appliances and other devices commonly used in the home, such as clothes dryers and washing machines, and climate control. On another level, domestic technology recognizes the use of applied science to construct homes to achieve a particular goal, such as energy efficiency or self sufficiency.

Water and plumbing

Water supply is vital to everyday life, and throughout history people have devised systems to make getting and using it more convenient. Early Rome had indoor plumbing, meaning a system of aqueducts and pipes that terminated in homes and at public wells and fountains for people to use.

The intake from these water sources usually is through a large cage-like box designed to screen out large particulate matter before it enters the system. After it is sucked in by a pumping station or allowed in by a gravity-feed system, it is usually filtered further, chlorinated, fluoridated, and then pumped either to holding locations like water towers or reservoirs, or fed directly into the user's spigot. Typically wastewater is piped away in a sewer system.

Plumbing originated during the ancient civilizations such as Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese civilizations as they developed public baths and needed to provide fresh water and drainage.

[编辑] 電和電子學

主条目：電

主条目：電子學

Electricity is a property of matter that results from the presence or movement of electric charge. Together with magnetism, it constitutes the fundamental interaction known as electromagnetism.

The field of electronics refers to the study and use of systems that operate by controlling the flow of electrons (or other charge carriers) in devices such as thermionic valves and semiconductors.

Electronic systems are used to perform a wide variety of tasks. The main uses of electronic circuits are controlling and processing of information and the conversion and distribution of electric power.

Both these applications involve the creation, detection, or both, of electromagnetic fields and electric currents. The harnessing of electricity enabled industrial applications such as electronics and electric power. While electrical energy had been used for some time before the late 19th century to transmit data over telegraph and telephone lines, development in electronics grew exponentially after the advent of radio.

[编辑] 能量和其他應用科學

主条目：能量

Solid fuels include coal, wood and peat. All these types of fuel are combustible (they create fire and heat). Coal was burnt by steam trains to heat water into steam to move parts and provide power. Peat and wood are mainly used for domestic and industrial heating, though peat has been used for power generation, and wood-burning steam locomotives were common in times past. Steam power is becoming more and more desirable as oil and gas supplies begin to run out, given the wide number of possible things that can burn to heat water.

Non-solid fuels include alkanes such as petroleum and gas (both fuel types have myriad varieties including petrol (gasoline) and natural gas). The former is widely used in the internal combustion engine while both are used in power generation.

[编辑] 軍事和武器

主条目：Military

Firearms are qualitatively different from earlier weapons because they store energy in a combustible propellant, such as gunpowder, rather than in a weight or spring. This energy is released quite rapidly, and can be restored without much effort by the user, so that even early firearms such as the arquebus were much more powerful than human-powered weapons. They became increasingly important and effective from the 16th century to 19th century, with progressive improvements in ignition mechanisms followed by revolutionary changes in ammunition handling and propellant. During the U.S. Civil War various technologies including the machine gun and ironclad warship emerged that would be recognizable and useful military weapons today, particularly in lower-technology conflicts.

The age of edged weapons diminished abruptly just before World War I with the increased development of rifled artillery, such as howitzers, able to destroy any masonry fortress.

The most notable development in weaponry since World War II has been the combination and further development of two weapons first used in it—nuclear weapons and the ballistic missile, leading to its ultimate configuration: the ICBM. The indiscriminate nature of nuclear weapons has made nuclear-tipped missiles essentially useless for smaller wars. However, computer-guided weaponry of all kinds, from precision-guided munitions (or "smart bombs") to computer-aimed tank rounds, has greatly increased the weapon's accuracy.

[编辑] 運輸

主条目：運輸

Automobiles

Automobiles typically use an internal combustion engine, a heat engine in which the burning of a fuel occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. This exothermic reaction of a fuel with an oxidizer creates gases of high temperature and pressure, which are permitted to expand. The defining feature of an internal combustion engine is that useful work is performed by the expanding hot gases acting directly to cause movement, for example by acting on pistons, rotors, or even by pressing on and moving the entire engine itself.

Internal combustion engine automobiles were first produced in Germany by Karl Benz in 1885-1886. Henry Ford brought automobiles to the masses, as the founder of the Ford Motor Company and father of the modern assembly line.

Aviation and space travel

Aviation or air transport refers to the activities surrounding human flight and the aircraft industry. Aircraft include fixed-wing aircraft, rotary wing (helicopter/autogyro) types, and ornithopters, as well as lighter-than-air craft such as balloons and airships (also known as dirigibles).

Fixed-wing aircraft generally use an internal-combustion engine in the form of a piston engine (with a propeller) or a turbine engine (jet or turboprop), to provide thrust that moves the craft forward through the air. The movement of air over the airfoil produces lift that causes the aircraft to fly. The Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, are generally credited with making the first controlled, powered, heavier-than-air flight on December 17, 1903.

Space exploration began to be seriously developed after the development of large liquid-fueled rocket engines during the early 20th century. The first major milestone of this endeavour was the launch of the USSR's Sputnik 1 on October 5, 1957, the first man-made object to orbit the Earth. After the first 20 years of exploration, focus began shifting from one-off flights to renewable hardware, such as the Space Shuttle program, and from competition to cooperation as on the International Space Station.

Rail

A typical railway (or railroad) track consists of two parallel rails. The vehicles traveling on the rails are arranged in a train. These vehicles move with much less friction than do rubber tires on a paved road, and the locomotive that pulls the train tends to use energy far more efficiently as a result.

The first railways in Great Britain (also known as wagonways) were built in the early 17th century, mainly for transporting coal from the mine to the water side where it could be loaded on to a boat.

A rapid transit system is a railway system, usually in an urban area, with a high capacity and frequency of service, and grade separation from other traffic.

Water

In the 1800s the first steam ships were developed, using a steam engine to drive a paddle wheel or propeller to move the ship. The steam was produced using wood or coal. Now most ships have an engine using a slightly refined type of petroleum called bunker fuel. Some specialized ships, such as submarines, use nuclear power to produce the steam.

[编辑] 美術和語言

The accessibility of art and artistic expression in modern society are now widely available to all segments of society due to technological advances. In addition, technology creates a new aspect of art in popular culture, pop music, and pop art.

Today, due to mass communication, communication crosses geographic, ethnic, cultural, and moral boundaries, from widespread use of television, radio, and telephone. There is also a vast array of networks that connect these devices, including computer networks, public telephone networks, radio networks, and television networks.

Computer communication across the Internet, such as e-mail and instant messaging, is just one of many examples of mass communication.

[编辑] Architecture, construction, and engineering

主条目：Architecture

主条目：Construction

主条目：Engineering

The creation of technology is also a technological undertaking and there are four broad professions that generally support the application of technical knowledge and the making of technological tools:

• architecture is the profession devoted to making human-occupied spaces;
• engineering is a set of professions devoted to the application of technical knowledge to solve a human problem;
• construction and manufacturing are the professions devoted to the transformation of raw materials into finished products.

[编辑] Medicine and health

主条目：Medicine

主条目：Health

Medical technology includes medical equipment such as x-ray machines for diagnosis; the laser scalpel for surgery; laboratory equipment to automate or help analysis of blood, urine and genes; and medical monitors that measure such things as blood pressure.

Related subjects include biotechnology, which can be used to create new drugs, and adaptive technology which helps disabled people, such as with devices with voice activation and speech recognition for blind people.

[编辑] Technological evaluation

[编辑] Technicism

Generally, technicism is over-reliance or overconfidence in technology as a benefactor of society.

Taken to extreme, some people argue that technicism is the belief that humanity will ultimately be able to control the entirety of existence using technology. In other words, human beings will eventually be able to master all problems, supply all wants and needs, and possibly even control the future. Some, such as Monsma, and others(1986), connect these ideas to the abdication of God as a higher moral authority.

More commonly, technicism is a criticism of the commonly held belief that newer, more recently-developed technology is "better." For example, more recently-developed computers are faster than older computers, and more recently-developed cars have greater gas efficiency and more features than older cars. Because current technologies are generally accepted as good, future technological developments are not considered circumspectly, resulting in what seems to be a blind acceptance of technological developments.

[编辑] Optimism, pessimism and appropriate technology

[编辑] Pessimism

On the somewhat pessimistic side are certain philosophers like Herbert Marcuse, Jacques Ellul, and John Zerzan, who believe that technological societies are inherently flawed a priori. They suggest that the result of such a society is to become evermore technological at the cost of freedom and psychological health (and probably physical health in general, as pollution from technological products is dispersed).

Perhaps the most poignant criticisms of technology are found in what are now considered to be dystopian literary classics, for example Aldous Huxley's Brave New World and other writings, Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange, and George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four.

[编辑] Optimism

On the other hand, the optimistic assumptions are made by proponents of views or ideologies such as extropianism and singularitarianism, that view technological development as generally having beneficial effects for the society and the human condition. In these ideologies, technological development is morally good. Some critics see these ideologies as examples of scientism or techno-utopianism and fear the idea of a technological singularity which they support.

[编辑] Appropriate technology

Technology, and more specifically industrialization, is one measure of the development of a country (see also developing country). During the 20th century, the notion of appropriate technology developed to describe those situations where it is desireable and those where it is undesirable to use very new technologies, those that required access to some centralized infrastructure, or those that require parts or skills imported from elsewhere. The eco-village movement emerged in part due to this concern.

[编辑] Theories and concepts in technology

主条目：Theories of technology

There are many theories and concepts that seek to explain technology:

• Bernard Stiegler
• Diffusion of innovations
• Jacques Ellul (technological society)
• Posthumanism
• Precautionary principle
• Strategy of technology
• Technological determinism
• Techno-progressivism

[编辑] 另見

• Golden hammer
• High technology
• 創新
• 知識經濟
• Lewis Mumford
• 技術列表
• List of "ologies"
• Megaprojects
• Applied Foresight Network
• Philosophy of technology
• Technique
• Technological convergence
• Techie
• 工程学
• 发明 - 发现
• 工具论

[编辑] 列表

• List of basic technology topics
• 技術列表
• Timelines of technology

[编辑] 參考

• ^{^} HistoryWorld （2006） - History of Stone Age Man HistoryWorld - 於2006August 10造訪。
• ^{^} Meier, G.M.; Rauch, J.E. (2000). Leading Issues in Economic Development, New York (US): Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511589-9.
• ^{^} McGinn, Robert E. (1991). Science, Technology, and Society, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-794736-4.
• ^{^} Monsma, Stephen V., et al. (1986). Responsible Technology: A Christian Perspective, Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans. ISBN 0-8028-0175-7.
• ^{^} Roussel, Philip A.; Kamal N. Saad, and Tamara J. Erickson (1991). Third Generation R & D: Managing the Link to Corporate Strategy, Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 0-87584-252-6.
• ^{^} Winston, Morton (2003). “Children of invention”, in Morton Winston and Ralph Edelbach (eds.), Society, Ethics, and Technology, 2nd ed., Belmont, Calif.: Thomson/Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-58540-X.

[编辑] Bibliography

• Adas, Michael (1989). Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance, Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2303-1.
• Noble, David F. (1984). Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation, New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-394-51262-6.
• Smil, Vaclav (1994). Energy in World History, pp. 259-267, Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-1901-3. Cited at Technology Chronology (accessed September 11, 2005).
• Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Compact Macromodels of the World System Growth by Andrey Korotayev, Artemy Malkov, and Daria Khaltourina. ISBN 5-484-00414-4 [1]
• Stiegler, Bernard (1998). Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus.

[编辑] 外部連結

• Engines of Our Ingenuity, site for a radio program that tells the story of how our culture is formed by human creativity.
• Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century
• Speculation Central, discussing upcoming gadgets, computers, hardware, software, video games, and other tech-related products. Thinking about the future - today.

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